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Musings on Japanese and Ryukyu Budo
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 As my time in Japan draws to a close, I find myself reflecting—or at least attempting to make sense of—what I have experienced over the past quarter-century. Below, I share my thoughts on what I perceive to be a cultural trait of overly focusing on the negative. As I often quip with friends: In Japan, you only know if you are happy when you are miserable. I aim to explore what research suggests on this matter and consider potential alternative interpretations. However, this is a deeply personal reflection, shaped by my lived experience within Japan rather than detached, external analysis. A Culture of Critique: Hansei and Tanin no MeOne of the most enduring cultural traits I have observed in Japan is the profound entrenchment of self-critique and external validation in daily life. At the heart of this lies the concept of hansei (反省), often translated as self-reflection. Hansei encourages individuals to critically evaluate their actions, learn from mistakes, and strive to avoid repeating them. Its roots lie in Confucian and Buddhist traditions, where humility and personal improvement are deeply valued. However, in contemporary Japanese society, hansei frequently manifests as a hyper-awareness of failure. Consider the practice of hansei-kai (reflection meetings) in the workplace. These sessions often focus almost exclusively on identifying what went wrong, leaving little room for recognising achievements. This emphasis can make even minor errors the focal point of discussion, overshadowing any progress or success. Complementing hansei is the concept of tanin no me (他人の目), or "the eyes of others". Research by Markus and Kitayama (Culture and the Self) highlights how Japanese individuals are socialised to be acutely aware of how others perceive them. This external gaze often fosters behaviours aimed at avoiding criticism rather than pursuing personal growth or self-expression. The fear of public embarrassment, a deeply ingrained cultural concern, frequently eclipses any motivation to celebrate progress or take risks. Hyper-Criticism and the Struggles of International MarriagesInternational marriages in Japan often reveal the challenges posed by this cultural focus on hyper-criticism. While all relationships require understanding and compromise, the cultural gap between Japanese and non-Japanese partners can lead to profound misunderstandings. One significant factor is the way critique is often framed in Japanese relationships—not as rejection, but as a means of fostering self-improvement or harmony. However, for non-Japanese partners, especially those from cultures that prioritise explicit affirmation and praise, this can feel deeply alienating. Examples from Marital Dynamics
Hyper-Criticism Beyond Marriage: Martial Arts and Workplaces. The challenge of hyper-criticism extends beyond personal relationships and can be particularly evident in fields such as martial arts and professional environments. Martial ArtsForeign practitioners of Japanese martial arts often encounter a relentless focus on flaws, with instructors rarely offering praise for progress. The traditional teaching style emphasises rigorous correction and repetition, which may feel dismissive to those unfamiliar with this approach.
Workplace Dynamics: In professional settings, hyper-criticism often manifests in the form of relentless feedback on errors or areas for improvement, with little acknowledgment of achievements. While this approach fosters collective growth, foreign employees frequently struggle with the absence of individual affirmation. Over time, this dynamic can lead to frustration, reduced morale, and a perception of being undervalued. Education: Cultivating Perfectionism This cultural focus on negativity begins early in life. The Japanese education system is heavily examination-oriented, with curricula prioritising mastery of content for high-stakes entrance exams. Success is often measured by the ability to reproduce correct answers under pressure rather than creativity or exploratory learning. Stevenson and Stigler (The Learning Gap) argue that this approach fosters an emphasis on avoiding failure rather than embracing risk. Teachers commonly highlight mistakes as a means of guiding students, but this often results in a narrowing of focus. The fear of failure and obsession with perfectionism can stifle curiosity and discourage innovation, creating a generation of learners adept at avoiding error but hesitant to take creative or intellectual risks. Gaman and Resilience: The Virtue of Endurance Another cultural pillar is gaman (我慢), a concept loosely translating to endurance or perseverance. Gaman instils the virtue of enduring hardship without complaint and is deeply celebrated in Japanese society. This mindset is particularly visible in collective responses to crises, such as the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. While the international community admired Japan’s ability to maintain order and composure during such devastating events, this stoicism often came at the cost of emotional openness. The cultural emphasis on enduring rather than processing or expressing feelings reinforced a societal tendency to suppress vulnerability, sometimes to the detriment of individual well-being. Balancing Criticism and Growth: The Role of Kaizen. Yet, Japan's cultural narrative is not solely one of negativity. The concept of kaizen (改善), or "continuous improvement", offers a counterpoint. Originating in the manufacturing sector and famously applied by companies such as Toyota, kaizen promotes incremental change and the celebration of small successes alongside constructive criticism. Unlike hansei, which often centres on identifying faults, kaizen encourages a more balanced approach, fostering ownership and progress at every organisational level. However, even kaizen is not immune to the pervasive cultural tendency to focus on flaws, as the pursuit of perfection can sometimes overshadow its successes. A Changing Tide? Generational Shifts Interestingly, younger generations are challenging some of these entrenched cultural norms. Kato and Fukuda (Youth in Transition: The Changing Values of Japanese Millennials) suggest that millennials and Generation Z are less inclined to conform to traditional expectations, including relentless self-critique. Globalisation and digital connectivity have exposed younger Japanese individuals to alternative perspectives that celebrate individuality and embrace imperfection. In schools, holistic approaches such as project-based learning are gaining traction, encouraging students to view failure as an integral part of growth rather than a source of shame. Concluding Thoughts: As I reflect on my time in Japan, I see a society that thrives on and is constrained by its hyper-focus on the negative. While hansei, gaman, and tanin no me have undoubtedly contributed to Japan’s resilience and achievements, they also perpetuate a psychological landscape where fear of failure overshadows the joy of growth. However, this is not a static picture. Emerging trends and generational shifts suggest that Japan’s cultural narrative is evolving. Like all cultures, Japan’s strength lies in its ability to adapt while preserving what is meaningful. As I prepare to leave this country that has profoundly shaped me, I carry with me both the weight of its criticism and the inspiration of its perseverance. Perhaps this is Japan’s true balance—teaching us to embrace both joy and struggle as equally vital parts of the human experience. 日本における幸福と批判文化：ネガティブへの過剰な焦点に関する考察 このブログでは、著者が四半世紀にわたり日本で暮らしてきた経験をもとに、日本文化におけるネガティブな側面への過剰な焦点について考察しています。以下は主なポイントの要約です。 主なポイント
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 Bibliographic Citation:
Nakajima, T. (2018). Japanese Martial Arts and the Sublimation of Violence: An Ethnographic Study of Shinkage-ryu. Martial Arts Studies, Issue 6, pp. 62-74. DOI: 10.18573/mas.68. Summary of Findings and AssertionsNakajima’s article, Japanese Martial Arts and the Sublimation of Violence, presents a unique and insightful ethnographic study of the Shinkage-ryu school of Japanese martial arts. His exploration of the central premise that martial arts serve not only as techniques for combat but also as methods for sublimating or transforming violence, while addressing broader philosophical and historical questions, is a perspective that will surely engage and intrigue our academic peers and researchers. The study focuses on the role of kata (pre-arranged forms) in turning violent actions into disciplined, constructive practices. Nakajima proposes that Shinkage-ryu offers a unique opportunity to observe how the transformation of violence is systematically taught through martial training. The use of kata is particularly emphasised as a critical mechanism for instilling in practitioners the ability to respond to violence in a controlled and non-lethal manner. According to Nakajima, this focus on sublimating violence contrasts with the common perception of martial arts as combat techniques aimed solely at defeating opponents. Through over 12 years of fieldwork in a Shinkage-ryu dojo, Nakajima observed that students are taught to ‘move in under the sword,’ not as a physical tactic alone, but as a way to negate violence entirely. The article asserts that classical Japanese martial arts do not merely prepare practitioners for physical confrontations but cultivate a mindset that neutralises violence through understanding and mastery of movement. The concept of marobashi, or the moment when violence is sublimated, is crucial to this study. Marobashi refers to the instant when, through the correct application of kata, the practitioner’s sword avoids contact with the opponent’s body, demonstrating a victory without the need to cause harm. This notion challenges the common assumption that martial arts must lead to the physical domination of one’s opponent. Situating the Article within the FieldNakajima’s work contributes significantly to martial arts studies by addressing gaps in the existing literature concerning classical martial arts. Much of the scholarship on Japanese martial arts has historically concentrated on modern disciplines such as judo and kendo, both of which became part of Japan’s educational curriculum after the Second World War. These arts are often studied through the lens of sportification, focusing on competitive elements and physical education. Nakajima’s ethnographic approach, however, offers a fresh perspective by examining classical martial traditions that have been mainly overlooked in academic research. Shinkage-ryu, unlike judo and kendo, has retained its classical form, and its pedagogical methods have not been widely adapted to the sport or educational arenas. This distinction makes Nakajima’s study particularly valuable, highlighting the philosophical and ethical dimensions of martial arts that remain primarily hidden within traditional dojo settings. Furthermore, the article engages with interdisciplinary frameworks, drawing on anthropology, philosophy, and history to deepen the analysis of how martial arts are not simply about violence but about controlling, managing, and ultimately sublimating it. This approach challenges more mechanistic interpretations of martial arts that focus solely on physical techniques, instead presenting martial arts as practices deeply intertwined with ethical and philosophical training. Assessing its Contribution to the FieldNakajima’s ethnographic study of Shinkage-ryu is a valuable addition to the growing body of literature on the deeper philosophical aspects of martial arts. While previous studies have explored the historical evolution of martial arts, Nakajima's work stands out by focusing on the experience of training in a classical school, offering valuable insights into the psychological and ethical dimensions of martial arts practice. His work not only enriches our understanding of Shinkage-ryu but also provides a unique perspective on the broader field of martial arts studies. The article is a detailed exploration of kata and marobashi, a vital contribution. Nakajima illustrates that kata are not merely choreographed movements but are intended to guide practitioners towards moments of realisation where violence is transcended. This shift from seeing martial arts as a means to an end—combat or self-defence—towards understanding them as processes for self-reflection and moral growth is a notable element of the study. Nakajima also raises important questions about the role of martial arts in modern society. In the post-war period, martial arts were introduced into Japan’s school curriculum primarily to emphasise physical education and competition. Nakajima’s work suggests that this approach may have overlooked the more profound objectives of martial arts training, such as the development of moral virtues and the cultivation of a nonviolent ethos. His findings could potentially influence the modern practice of martial arts, encouraging a shift towards a more holistic approach that incorporates these deeper objectives. The article’s focus on Shinkage-ryu, a lesser-known classical school, enhances the discussion by highlighting the diversity within Japanese martial arts traditions. It challenges the dominant narrative that focuses on modern, sport-oriented martial arts, drawing attention to the rich philosophical heritage of classical martial arts, which have been preserved for centuries yet remain under-explored in contemporary scholarship. Future ConsiderationsNakajima’s study opens several exciting pathways for further research. One potential area of exploration is a comparative study of how different classical martial arts schools, such as Niten Ichi-ryu or Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto-ryu, approach the concept of sublimating violence. Such studies could provide a broader understanding of how various schools interpret violence and its transformation through martial practice, sparking new ideas and motivating further exploration. Further ethnographic studies could also examine how modern practitioners of classical martial arts integrate these philosophical teachings into their daily lives. How do the ethical lessons learned in the dojo influence practitioners outside the training hall? This area could provide valuable insights into the relevance of martial arts philosophy in contemporary society. Additionally, Nakajima’s emphasis on marobashi raises essential questions about how practitioners interpret and apply such abstract concepts in practice. Future research could investigate how different instructors across Japan teach these ideas and whether there is variation in how they are understood and applied. ConclusionTetsuya Nakajima’s Japanese Martial Arts and the Sublimation of Violence is a significant contribution to the study of martial arts. His work challenges traditional views of martial arts, offering a unique perspective on the philosophical underpinnings of classical Japanese martial traditions. Through his detailed ethnographic study of Shinkage-ryu, Nakajima demonstrates that martial arts are not solely about fighting but about learning to transcend violence through disciplined practice and moral cultivation. This challenging of traditional views will surely inspire and enlighten our academic peers and researchers, providing a foundation for future research into these ancient practices' ethical and philosophical dimensions. 研究の要約と主張中島哲哉の論文「日本の武道と暴力の昇華」は、武道の技術が単なる戦闘の手段ではなく、暴力を昇華・変換するための方法でもあるという独自かつ洞察に富んだ民族誌的研究です。この研究は、幅広い哲学的および歴史的な問題に取り組みながら、型（事前に決められた動作）が暴力的な行動を規律ある建設的な実践に変える役割に焦点を当てています。 中島は、神影流が、武道訓練を通じて暴力を体系的にどのように昇華するかを観察するためのユニークな機会を提供していると提案しています。特に型の使用が、暴力に対して制御された非致死的な方法で反応する能力を修練者に植え付ける重要なメカニズムとして強調されています。中島によれば、この暴力の昇華に焦点を当てることは、武道が対戦相手を打ち負かすための戦闘技術に過ぎないという一般的な認識とは対照的です。神影流道場で12年以上にわたって行われたフィールドワークを通じて、中島は、弟子たちが「刀の下に入り込む」ことを教えられている様子を観察しましたが、これは単なる物理的な戦術ではなく、暴力を完全に無効化する方法として教えられていました。 論文は、日本の古典的な武道が単なる物理的な対決の準備をするだけでなく、動作の理解と習得を通じて暴力を中和する心構えを育むものであると主張しています。この研究において重要な概念である円橋は、型の正しい応用によって修練者の刀が相手の体に触れることなく、勝利を示す瞬間を指します。この概念は、武道が必ずしも相手の身体的な支配に至るべきだという一般的な仮定に異議を唱えています。 中島の研究は、武道に関する既存の文献の欠点に取り組むことで、武道研究分野に大きく貢献しています。日本の武道に関する学術的な研究の多くは、歴史的に柔道や剣道といった近代的な武道に集中してきましたが、これらは第二次世界大戦後に日本の教育課程に取り入れられました。これらの武道は、競技要素や体育的な観点で研究されることが多いです。 一方で、中島の民族誌的アプローチは、これまで学術研究でほとんど見過ごされてきた古典的な武道伝統を掘り下げる新たな視点を提供しています。神影流は、柔道や剣道とは異なり、古典的な形を維持しており、その教育法は競技や教育の場に広く適応されていません。この違いが中島の研究を特に貴重なものにしており、伝統的な道場環境の中で隠れている武道の哲学的および倫理的な側面に光を当てています。 さらに、論文は人類学、哲学、歴史学などの学際的な枠組みを活用して、武道が単なる暴力に関するものではなく、暴力を制御し、管理し、最終的に昇華することに関するものであるという分析を深めています。このアプローチは、物理的な技術に焦点を当てた機械的な解釈に挑戦し、武道を倫理的・哲学的な訓練と深く結びついた実践として提示しています。  Bibliographic Citation:Fukushima, S. (1965). The Building of a National Army. The Developing Economies.
As I am one to point out often, the dire lack of understanding of BIG HISTORY, a term that encompasses the broad historical context of human civilisation, into which that of budo, and specifically karate, fit this week, I want to explore Fukushima's The Building of a National Army for it explore the militarisation and modernisation process into which modern budo and indeed karate fit. Despite what is often written, karate, as we know it today, is directly connected, shaped and propagated due to the militarization of Japan during the Meiji process. Before that, karate had fallen into disuse and, for many, disregard - a purposeless practice lacking relevance to the modern age. Regardless of what you have read or been told, modern karate (sometimes referenced as 'traditional ') is undoubtedly the product of mindsets, ideals, and body mechanics that trace large swaths of what they are to the Meiji period! Fukushima's article highlights that it was one of the driving forces that drove the "modernisation" of what, ironically, has become known as "traditional" karate. Summary of Findings and Assertions In The Building of a National Army, Shingo Fukushima offers an in-depth analysis of Japan's military modernisation, concentrating on the pivotal changes in the armed forces from the Tokugawa period to the Meiji Restoration. Fukushima posits that Japan's shift from a system of feudal retainers to a nationalised military force was central to its efforts to defend against Western colonial powers. He traces how the samurai class, once the primary military force, was progressively replaced by a conscripted national army, reflecting Western models, particularly those of France and Prussia. The article discusses critical military reforms, including disbanding feudal armies and forming a centralised military under the Meiji government. Fukushima asserts that Japan's military modernisation was not solely a defensive measure but also served the broader aims of national sovereignty and prestige. The article underscores the crucial role of leaders from the samurai class in shaping the modern military while also noting that the Meiji government's adoption of Western military technologies, such as firearms and artillery, was driven by Japan's desire to resist Western imperialism. This shift to modernisation, particularly the introduction of conscription, faced resistance from the lower classes and triggered political conflict within the ruling elite. Situating the Article within the Field Fukushima's work stands out in military history and political modernisation, offering unique insights into Japan's distinctive process of Westernisation. His analysis aligns with broader academic discourse on the comparative modernisation of military institutions in non-European nations. Scholars like C. E. Black and A. S. Banks, who have categorised Japan's modernisation as self-directed, have argued that Japan's approach diverged from Western tutelage models. Fukushima critiques this classification, suggesting that while Western models influenced Japan's modernisation, it retained distinct characteristics shaped by internal social dynamics and the ideological influence of the samurai class. The article also illuminates the strategic thinking behind Japan's military modernisation. Focusing on the motivations of Meiji leaders, particularly their goal of preventing Japan from being colonised, Fukushima's work provides a framework for understanding Japan's imperial ambitions and the militaristic path it later pursued. His examination of Japan's military modernisation also contributes to broader discussions about how military institutions preserve and transform national identity. Assessing its Contribution to the Field Fukushima's article significantly contributes to studying Japan's military history, offering a detailed analysis of the internal and external forces that shaped its modernisation. One of the article's key strengths is its focus on the intersection between military reform and socio-political change. Fukushima delves into the complexities of Japan's feudal society, exploring the tensions between the samurai class and the government's efforts to nationalise military power. His critique of the Meiji government's reliance on former samurai leaders to lead military reforms provides a nuanced perspective on modernisation as a top-down initiative. Additionally, Fukushima's use of primary sources, including government documents and military ordinances, enhances the scholarly rigour of his analysis. His work offers crucial context for understanding the broader geopolitical landscape of 19th-century East Asia, particularly Japan's relationship with Western powers and its strategic responses to foreign military pressure【16†source】. Future Considerations Fukushima's analysis opens several avenues for future research on Japan's military modernisation. One area ripe for further exploration is the role of military modernisation in shaping Japan's domestic political structure. While Fukushima touches on the influence of the samurai class in the new national army, further research could examine how this class's integration into the modern state contributed to Japan's later military expansionism. Moreover, as the article highlights the influence of Western military models on Japan, future studies could investigate the long-term impact of this Westernisation on Japan's military culture, particularly in the context of its imperial ambitions. The question of how Japanese leaders adapted or resisted Western models could provide valuable insights into Japan's military trajectory in the 20th century. Finally, Fukushima's work raises pertinent questions regarding the relationship between military modernisation and national identity. As Japan's military became more centralised and nationalised, the role of the common soldier—drawn primarily from the peasantry—grew increasingly important. Future research could examine how this shift affected Japan's class structure and the relationship between military and civilian governance. In conclusion, Fukushima's article is essential to understanding Japan's military transformation during a crucial historical period. It offers a detailed, well-researched analysis of the Meiji government's efforts to modernise the military while safeguarding Japan's sovereignty. Focusing on this process's social, political, and military dimensions, Fukushima provides a comprehensive view of how national identity and geopolitical forces can shape and shape military modernisation. Japanese Language Summary 福島晋吾の『国軍の建設』についての要約 福島晋吾の論文「国軍の建設」は、江戸時代から明治維新にかけての日本の軍事近代化についての詳細な分析を提供しています。福島は、日本が封建的な軍事制度から国民軍へと移行したことが、西洋の植民地主義に対抗するために不可欠であったと主張しています。特に、武士階級がかつての主な軍事力から、西洋の軍事モデル（フランスやプロイセンの例）に基づいた徴兵制の国民軍へと徐々に取って代わられていく過程が描かれています。 福島は、日本の軍事近代化が単なる防御的な動きに留まらず、国家主権や国威の向上を目指したものであるとしています。また、明治政府が火器や大砲などの西洋の軍事技術を採用したことが、西洋帝国主義に対抗するための現実的な選択であったことも指摘されています。この変革は、特に徴兵制の導入により、下層階級からの抵抗や政治的対立を引き起こしました。 論文の位置付け 福島の研究は、日本の独特な西洋化のプロセスに関する洞察を提供し、軍事史や政治的近代化の分野において重要な位置を占めています。彼の分析は、非西欧諸国における軍事制度の比較近代化に関する広範な学術的議論と一致しており、C.E.ブラックやA.S.バンクスのような学者が分類した日本の「自律的近代化」という見解を批判的に再検討しています。 さらに、福島の論文は、軍事改革と国家建設の関係を明らかにしており、日本の指導者たちが西洋列強による植民地化を防ぐことを目指していたことを強調しています。彼の研究は、軍事制度がどのようにして国民のアイデンティティを保持し、変容させたかを理解するための重要な枠組みを提供しています。 論文の貢献と将来の研究の可能性 福島の論文は、日本の軍事史研究において重要な貢献をしています。特に、軍事改革が政治的・社会的変化とどのように交差したかに焦点を当てた点が評価されています。武士階級と政府の緊張関係に対する彼の分析は、トップダウン的な近代化の物語に新たな視点を提供しています。 福島の分析は、今後の研究においても多くの方向性を示唆しています。例えば、軍事近代化が日本の国内政治構造にどのような影響を与えたかや、西洋の軍事モデルが日本の軍事文化にどのような影響を与えたかなどが、さらに探求されるべきテーマとして挙げられます。 OpenAI. (2024). ChatGPT (4o) [Large language model]. https://chatgpt.com/c/15243f03-db43-4f1b-91ef-026a88d757d8  This blog serves as a platform for critical analysis and scholarly discussion, aiming to deepen our understanding of the evolution of karate and its implications for martial arts education and practice.
Citation: Lozovyy, Anatoliy. "Karate Sports Disciplines from the Spotlight of the Paradigm Shift of Japanese Combat Systems: Analytical Study." Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 101, no. 33 (2023): 30-37. https://doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0016.2851. Anatoliy Lozovyy's article, 'Karate Sports Disciplines from the Spotlight of the Paradigm Shift of Japanese Combat Systems: Analytical Study', is centred around a detailed examination of karate's evolution. His main argument is that karate, originally part of the 'Bugei' (military training) paradigm, has progressively moved away from its martial origins, evolving through the 'Budo' phase to integrate into the 'Sport' paradigm fully. Lozovyy's categorisation of karate into three distinct forms—Style Karate (Traditional Karate), General Karate, and Sports Karate (Olympic Karate)—provides a compelling framework for understanding the transformation of karate over time. However, certain assumptions about karate's classification as a martial art, particularly its supposed military origins, warrant further discussion and critique. Lozovyy's framework is built on the idea that karate began as a practical combat system designed for life-or-death encounters like other Japanese martial arts. It gradually became an educational tool for civilians and became a globalised sport. He claims, "Each transition of combat systems to a new paradigm was another step away from the original mission and military tradition," positioning modern karate as a diluted version of its former self, stripped of its martial essence and redefined for entertainment and competition. While this narrative of evolution is supported by Lozovyy's vast practical experience and research, it is essential to question whether karate ever truly belonged to the 'Bugei' paradigm in the first place. The assumption that karate was once a battlefield art is, at best, debatable. Historically, karate was developed in Okinawa, drawing from Chinese martial traditions and local self-defence techniques, primarily for civilian use rather than military application. This historical context sheds light on the true origins of karate, offering a more informed perspective. There is little to no historical evidence to suggest that karate was ever employed by samurai or used in formal military contexts. Instead, it has functioned as a personal defence system for unarmed civilians. Therefore, while Lozovyy's argument hinges on karate's supposed battlefield origins, this assumption may only partially be accurate, but it provides a deeper understanding of karate's roots. This critique opens a broader discussion on what constitutes a "martial" art. If we define "martial" strictly as a system developed for warfare, then karate, with its civilian origins and lack of documented battlefield application, may not meet this criterion. Lozovyy's characterisation of karate as part of the "Bugei" paradigm thus seems problematic. However, if we expand the definition of "martial" to include systems used by security services, law enforcement, or other governmental bodies to maintain public order, then karate's inclusion within the martial realm becomes more plausible. In this broader context, karate has indeed been employed by various police and security forces, both in Japan and internationally, fulfilling a protective role even if not directly linked to warfare. Lozovyy's discussion of karate's transition from the "Budo" to the "Sport" paradigm is one of the most compelling aspects of his article. He convincingly argues that the modernisation and globalisation of karate have transformed it into a sport that prioritises entertainment and spectacle over traditional martial values. He notes that sports karate, mainly practised under the Olympic framework, has been "cleared of traditional and national features" in favour of a more globalised, standardised approach that aligns with Western ideals of competition. In this process, karate has been reshaped into a discipline that, while technically a combat sport, bears little resemblance to its traditional roots. Protective equipment, point-based scoring systems, and the emphasis on technical performance over combat realism signify this shift. However, Lozovyy's critique of Sports Karate as a mere 'game' that has lost its connection to traditional martial values oversimplifies the issue. Many practitioners of Sports Karate continue to engage deeply with the philosophical and spiritual elements of the discipline, even as they participate in competitions. While it is true that the rules and structures of Sports Karate prioritise safety and entertainment, this does not necessarily mean that the traditional elements of karate have been entirely erased. A more nuanced exploration of how different forms of karate coexist and interact within the modern landscape, rather than positioning them as fundamentally opposed, can deepen the audience's understanding of the complexity of karate's evolution and encourage critical thinking. Moreover, Lozovyy's reliance on interviews with high-ranking masters such as Takayuki Kubota and Hirokazu Kanazawa, while offering valuable insights, may not fully capture the diversity of experiences and perspectives within the global karate community. The cross-pollination of techniques and training methodologies between Style, General, and Sports Karate complicates Lozovyy's neat categorisation. Many practitioners move fluidly between these forms, drawing on elements of tradition while engaging in modern competitive practices. This dynamic and interconnected nature of karate's evolution intrigues Lozovyy's strict paradigm-based framework. Acknowledging this diversity is essential to make the audience feel included and respected in the academic discourse. In placing his article within the broader academic discourse on martial arts, Lozovyy builds on the work of scholars like Donn Draeger, who argued that the core of martial arts lies in their military function, and I. Martinkova and J.M. Parry, who have classified martial arts based on their purpose and societal role. However, Lozovyy's insistence on karate's martial origins may be oversimplified. While Japanese martial traditions have undoubtedly influenced karate, its origins as a civilian defence system and its later adaptation as a tool for physical education challenge the idea that it was ever a true battlefield art. By acknowledging this complexity, Lozovyy's analysis could provide a more comprehensive understanding of how martial and civilian influences have shaped karate, thereby engaging the audience in a more nuanced discussion. In conclusion, Lozovyy's article provides a valuable framework for understanding the evolution of karate through the lenses of tradition, modernisation, and globalisation. His categorisation of karate into Style, General, and Sports forms offers a clear structure for analysing its diverse manifestations. However, the assumption that karate can be unequivocally classified as a 'martial' art is open to debate, particularly considering the lack of historical evidence linking karate to military applications. A more flexible interpretation of the term 'martial' and a deeper, more nuanced exploration of the overlaps between these forms would enrich Lozovyy's argument, offering a more comprehensive and intellectually stimulating view of karate's place in the modern world. Here is the Japanese language summary: Japanese Summary: アナトリー・ロゾヴィーの論文『日本の武道体系におけるパラダイムシフトの視点から見た空手のスポーツ競技：分析的研究』は、空手の進化に関する詳細な検討に焦点を当てています。彼の主な議論は、空手が「武芸」（軍事訓練）のパラダイムの一部として始まり、武道の段階を経て、最終的には「スポーツ」のパラダイムに統合されるまでに、武道の起源から徐々に離れていったというものです。ロゾヴィーは、空手を「スタイル空手」（伝統的空手）、「一般空手」、「スポーツ空手」（オリンピック空手）の3つの明確な形に分類し、時間をかけて空手がどのように変容してきたかを理解するための説得力のある枠組みを提供しています。しかし、空手が武道と見なされるという前提、特にその軍事的な起源に関する仮定には、さらなる議論と批評が必要です。 ロゾヴィーの枠組みは、他の日本武術と同様に、空手が生死をかけた戦いに備える実践的な戦闘システムとして始まり、その後、民間人の教育ツールとして利用され、ついには国際化されたスポーツへと変化していったという考えに基づいています。彼は、「武道体系が新しいパラダイムに移行するたびに、元の使命や軍事伝統からさらに離れていった」と主張し、現代の空手を、武道としての本質を失い、娯楽や競技として再定義された形として位置づけています。 ロゾヴィーの論文は、空手の武道としての位置づけやその歴史的背景について、より広範な議論を提起する重要な貢献をしており、空手の現代的な発展をより深く理解するための新たな視点を提供しています。  There is a common misconception that the concept of Yin and Yang, or 陰 and 陽 (Yin and Yo in Japanese, pronounced "In" and "Yo" in the kanji 陰陽), represents a binary system of opposites, akin to the Western notion of duality—black and white, good and evil. However, this interpretation reduces a much richer, more intricate philosophical tradition that has been present in East Asian thought for millennia. Yin and Yang are not simply opposing forces; instead, they are complementary, interconnected, and constantly interacting with one another, forming a dynamic balance that transcends mere dichotomy. This interconnectedness underscores a profound sense of unity and integration in the world.
Yin and Yang in Context The roots of the Yin and Yang theory can be traced back to ancient Chinese texts, including the 'I Ching' (The Book of Changes), or 易経 ('Ekikyō') in Japanese, and the 'Dao De Jing' (The Way and Its Power), or 道徳経 ('Dōtoku-kyō') in Japanese, by Laozi. These texts emphasise the cyclical nature of reality, positing that all things exist in a constant flux, driven by the interaction of these two forces. Rather than being isolated or oppositional, Yin and Yang are relational and interdependent. Yin is associated with darkness, femininity, passivity, and cold, while Yang is associated with light, masculinity, activity, and warmth. However, it is crucial to understand that these qualities do not operate in isolation; instead, they flow into each other, continually shaping the world around us. A central point of this philosophy is that nothing is ever purely Yin or Yang. The classic symbol of Yin and Yang, known as the Taijitu (太極圖), or 太極図 ('Taikyoku-zu') in Japanese, illustrates this beautifully: within the black Yin section, there is a small white dot, and within the white Yang section, there is a small black dot. This demonstrates that even within the most robust expression of Yin, there is always a trace of Yang and vice versa. It is this interpenetration that speaks to the complexity and subtlety of the concept. A Dance of Balance and Transformation What often gets overlooked in Western interpretations is the fluidity and transformation of Yin and Yang. They are not fixed states; instead, they constantly transform into one another. This transformation is mirrored in the natural world—day turns into night, hot summer transitions to cold winter, and high tides ebb into low tides. In 'Zhuangzi', or 荘子 ('Sōshi') in Japanese, another foundational Daoist text, the philosopher Zhuangzi writes that the "alternation of Yin and Yang" is the driving force behind all change. This perpetual dance between Yin and Yang governs all aspects of existence, from the smallest organism to the vastness of the cosmos. Moreover, the interplay between Yin and Yang goes beyond mere opposition. They work together to create harmony and balance. For example, health in traditional Chinese medicine is understood as the balance of Yin and Yang within the body. When these forces are in equilibrium, the body thrives. However, when one dominates the other—whether Yin or Yang—the body becomes susceptible to illness. Healing, therefore, involves restoring balance, not choosing one force over the other. This emphasis on balance and harmony evokes a sense of peace and equilibrium. Yin and Yang in Japanese Thought In Japan, the theory of Yin and Yang, referred to as "In" and "Yo" (陰陽), was integrated into indigenous religious and philosophical traditions. In particular, Yin and Yang were foundational to 'Onmyōdō' (陰陽道), an ancient system of cosmology, divination, and natural science. Here, the belief in the interaction of Yin and Yang also extends to ideas of balance in human affairs, the environment, and the universe. One striking difference in the Japanese interpretation is the emphasis on order and ritual within the natural flow of Yin and Yang. This approach highlights how Yin and Yang are more than just theoretical forces; they are also principles guiding daily life, behaviour, and ethics in subtle and integrated ways. Moving Beyond Dualism The notion of Yin and Yang as "opposites" is a simplification that overlooks the essential nuance of the philosophy. Yin and Yang are better understood as complementary forces, constantly interacting and transforming each other. They do not merely define each other through opposition but work together to create a balanced whole. The black dot within the white and the white dot within the black reminds us that nothing is absolute and that life's complexity arises from the blending of forces, not their separation. This stress on the non-binary nature of Yin and Yang evokes a sense of complexity and depth. Recognising this nuance, we can appreciate the wisdom embedded in this ancient philosophy, which offers a worldview that transcends binary thinking. Yin and Yang are not concerned with dichotomy but harmony, transformation, and interconnectedness. This is a significant departure from the Western tendency towards dualistic thinking, where opposites are often seen as mutually exclusive. Furthermore, Yin and Yang reflect the dynamic and ever-changing nature of the universe. As the 'I Ching' teaches, all things are in a state of constant transformation, and the interaction of Yin and Yang drives this transformation. Rather than seeing the world as divided between two opposing forces, philosophy encourages us to see the world as a web of interrelations, where balance is achieved through the continuous interplay of these complementary energies. Thus, the philosophy of Yin and Yang offers us a profound understanding of the world—one that is fluid, relational, and non-binary. It invites us to embrace complexity and seek harmony not through rigid categorisations but through a deeper understanding of the relationships between seemingly disparate elements. In doing so, it provides a powerful antidote to the oversimplifications of binary thinking. It reminds us that the path to wisdom lies in the spaces where differences and similarities meet and merge and re-emerge. 陰陽の複雑さを解明する：単なる対立を超えて陰陽（日本語で「陰」と「陽」、または「陰陽」）は、対立する二元論的なシステムとして理解されがちですが、この解釈は、東アジアの伝統的な哲学が持つ豊かで複雑な側面を見落としています。実際には、陰と陽は単なる対立する力ではなく、相互に補完し合い、絶えず影響し合う存在であり、単なる二元論を超えた動的なバランスを形成しています。 陰陽の理論は、古代の中国のテキスト、たとえば『易経』（Ekikyō）や『道徳経』（Dōtoku-kyō）にその起源を持ちます。これらの書物は、陰と陽が相互に影響し合うことで世界が変化し続けることを強調しています。この陰陽のバランスは、健康、自然、宇宙全体において重要な概念です。また、日本の陰陽道（Onmyōdō）など、陰陽の概念は宗教や哲学の伝統にも影響を与えてきました。 陰陽は固定された対立する概念ではなく、むしろ、絶えず相互に作用し、変化し続けるものです。この哲学は、単純な二元論を超えて、調和と相互関係を強調し、世界をより深く理解するための枠組みを提供します。 |
James M. HatchInternational Educator who happens to be passionate about Chito Ryu Karate. Born in Ireland, educated in Canada, matured in Japan Archives
November 2024
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