|
Thoughts on International & Global Education
|
Musings on Japanese and Ryukyu Budo
|
 Sleep Well, and Dream Not of Yesterday: A Reflection on Zen, Bushido, and the Lived Experience
Memory is a fascinating construct. I recall hearing, "Sleep well, and dream not of yesterday", and attributing it to Worf from Star Trek: The Next Generation. With his stoic demeanour and adherence to Klingon traditions, Worf seemed the perfect vessel for such wisdom. However, upon revisiting the series and delving into Klingon lore, I realise this line isn't present. It may have been a Klingon wish or a phrase that resonated so profoundly that it found its way into my understanding of the character. But whether its origins lie in Star Trek or elsewhere, the sentiment remains powerful. It speaks to an enduring truth found in Zen thought, Bushido, and the reality of human experience—the past is unchangeable, and only the present and future remain within our reach. To dwell on yesterday is to chain oneself to what can no longer be influenced, while to dream of the future is to engage with what is yet to be shaped. Mushin no Shin in Zen Buddhism An ensō (Zen circle)—a traditional ink painting done in one free brushstroke— symbolises enlightenment and the empty mind of Zen. It represents a moment when the mind is uncluttered and “free to let the body create,” capturing the spirit of mushin. In Zen Buddhist thought, mushin no shin – often translated as “no-mind” – refers to a pure awareness free from ego and distraction. Importantly, no mind does not mean literal mindlessness or blank indifference. Instead, it is a mind unbound by ego-driven thought, “not delimited by ideas, desires, and images” and free of internal commentary or projection. In this state, the practitioner fully experiences reality without clinging to judgments, allowing actions and responses to flow naturally. The 13th-century Zen master Dōgen (道元), founder of the Sōtō Zen school, described his enlightenment as “dropping off the body and the mind” (shinjin datsuraku) – a moment in which the usual dualism between self and other dissolved. Through rigorous zazen meditation and mindfulness, Dōgen taught “practice-realization,” wherein one lets go of attaining anything and simply is here and now. Later, Zen figures expanded on mushin in practical terms. Takuan Sōhō (沢庵宗彭, 1573–1645), a Rinzai Zen monk, famously applied mushin to swordsmanship in his treatise Fudōchishinmyōroku (The Unfettered Mind). Writing to the swordsman Yagyū Munenori, Takuan counselled that the Zen practitioner and the warrior must learn to “free their minds from attachments, discriminations, and conceptualisations” – to let no grasping thought interrupt the fluidity of mind. Mushin no shin, he explained, is a mental state of total presence and responsiveness, like water that adapts to the shape of its container without hesitation. In combat or daily life, this inner freedom allows one to respond to changing situations immediately and naturally, unimpeded by fear or cognitive overthinking. Bushidō and Shikata ga nai: Samurai Acceptance An Edo-period woodblock print depicting the legendary samurai Miyamoto Musashi (宮本武蔵). Musashi’s writings emphasise a warrior’s composure and acceptance of reality. Samurai were taught to face death and hardship calmly, embodying the ethos of shikata ga nai – “it cannot be helped.” Bushidō (武士道, “Way of the Warrior”), the code of ethics followed by samurai in feudal Japan, placed great emphasis on honour, duty, and unflinching courage. Underlying these virtues was an ethos of acceptance – an understanding that a warrior must calmly face realities beyond their control, including the inevitability of death. The Japanese shikata ga nai (“it cannot be helped”) epitomises this attitude of stoic acceptance. Rather than indicating defeatism, shikata ga nai encouraged samurai to meet fate with grace and focus on what must be done next. One of the definitive Bushidō texts, Hagakure (葉隠, “Hidden in Leaves”), compiled by Yamamoto Tsunetomo in the early 1700s, repeatedly instructs the samurai to accept death and adversity as natural. Hagakure famously states that “the way of the samurai is found in death.” In practical terms, a samurai must always be prepared to die – to live each day as if it were his last, with honour and purpose. By embracing death in his heart beforehand, a warrior can act decisively and without fear. Stoicism: Focus on the Controllable, Embrace Impermanence Bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome. As a Stoic philosopher-king, Marcus Aurelius wrote extensively about accepting fate and focusing only on one’s moral action. Stoicism teaches that while we cannot control external events, we can control our judgments and choices. Stoicism, an ancient Greco-Roman philosophy, offers similar wisdom of acceptance and present-focused action. Stoic thinkers like Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius, and Seneca taught that serenity comes from understanding what we can control and cannot and concentrating only on the former. In his Meditations, Marcus Aurelius constantly reminds himself how transient life is: “Keep in mind how fast things pass by and are gone… Nothing is stable, not even what’s right here.” This almost Zen-like reflection encourages us to see that all external things (pleasures, pain, fame, even our bodies) are fleeting and beyond our ultimate control. Why grieve and fret over the ephemeral? Instead, Stoics argue, devote yourself to what is enduringly yours: your virtue and attitude. A Call to Rest and a Call to Dream To sleep well, free of yesterday’s burdens, is to embrace a mindset of peace and presence. To dream only of the future is to step into agency, creativity, and action. Zen teaches us to let go, Bushido reminds us to move forward, and life itself proves, time and again, that clinging to what has passed does not serve us. The next time you close your eyes, remember: yesterday was a closed book. What dreams will you shape for tomorrow? 日本語の要約 (Japanese Summary) 禅の「無心の心」、武士道の「仕方がない」、ストア哲学の教え––これら三つの伝統はいずれも**「執着を手放し、今この瞬間に最善を尽くす」**ことを説いています。道元や沢庵宗彭は無心の境地について論じ、武士道では『葉隠』が死を覚悟し生きることを説き、ストア哲学は「制御できるものに集中し、制御できないものを受け流す」ことの大切さを教えています。それぞれ異なる文化で発展しましたが、その核心には「あるがままの現実を受け入れ、今ここでなすべきことを実行する」という共通の哲学があるのです。
0 Comments
 With the new year underway and the return to work looming - here is my first offering for the new year. Easing ourselves into the new year with an easy one…(I don’t think so!).
Bibliography Entry Keenan, J. P. (1990). The Mystique of Martial Arts: A Response to Professor McFarlane. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 17(4), 421-428. Academic Review of Keenan's "The Mystique of Martial Arts: A Response to Professor McFarlane"John P. Keenan's article, "The Mystique of Martial Arts: A Response to Professor McFarlane," offers a provocative exploration of the appropriation (the act of taking something for one's own use, often without permission) and transformation of Eastern martial arts within Western contexts. The piece, primarily written as a rebuttal to McFarlane's critique of Keenan's earlier work, delves into the cultural, philosophical, and spiritual elements often overlooked or misconstrued in Western interpretations of martial arts. Keenan's response is both an intellectual defence and a continuation of his critique of Western popular culture's engagement with martial arts traditions. This article is a significant contribution to the growing field of martial arts studies, where scholars critically analyse the intersections of culture, philosophy, and practice. Overview of the ArticleKeenan's central thesis asserts that Western appropriations of martial arts frequently strip away their Eastern spiritual and humanistic contexts, reducing them to athletic prowess or utilitarian self-defence. He highlights instances such as the portrayal of martial arts in popular media, including the "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles," which, according to Keenan, exemplify the distortion of martial arts' deeper meanings into commodified entertainment. He also critiques how martial arts are taught in institutions such as the YMCA or the US Marines, where their practice is often severed from its original ethos. The article addresses several points raised by McFarlane, including the alleged overstatement of Keenan's claims about martial arts' detachment from their Zen and Mahayana Buddhist roots. Keenan defends his position by arguing that, while techniques can be transplanted across cultures, the accompanying cultural and spiritual frameworks often do not translate effectively. He characterises the Western adaptation of martial arts' spiritual elements as a "mystique," which frequently results in an incomplete or distorted understanding of the traditions. Keenan further examines philosophical concepts like mushin (no mind) and spontaneity, critiquing oversimplified interpretations. He advocates for a more nuanced appreciation of these ideas, emphasising their embeddedness within broader Sino-Japanese thought systems. Placement within Martial Arts StudiesKeenan's work stands as a significant example of the interdisciplinary approach in martial arts studies. It delves into martial practices as cultural, historical, and philosophical phenomena, aligning with broader discussions about cultural appropriation and the globalisation of traditional practices. His focus on the misinterpretation and decontextualisation of martial arts is of utmost importance in the field. Keenan's article significantly contributes to the ongoing debates about authenticity in martial arts. It raises questions about what constitutes an 'authentic' martial art, especially as practices evolve and adapt to new cultural environments. His critique underscores the tension between preserving the integrity of martial traditions and accommodating their global dissemination, engaging scholars in these important discussions. Keenan's article, by addressing the role of media and popular culture in shaping perceptions of martial arts, significantly broadens the scope of martial arts studies. It offers insights into how traditions are commodified and repackaged for mass consumption, inviting scholars to consider the implications of cultural transmission and transformation, thereby expanding the field of study. Areas for ConsiderationKeenan's analysis raises several points that merit further exploration within martial arts studies:
Concluding ThoughtsJohn P. Keenan's "The Mystique of Martial Arts" is a thought-provoking contribution to martial arts studies that challenges readers to critically examine the cultural and philosophical dimensions of martial arts in Western contexts. By addressing issues of appropriation, interpretation, and commodification, the article enriches scholarly discussions about the complexities of cultural transmission. Keenan's insights call for a more thoughtful engagement with martial arts, urging practitioners and scholars alike to honour the rich traditions that underpin these practices while navigating their contemporary adaptations. As martial arts studies evolve, Keenan's work serves as a vital reference point for understanding the interplay between tradition and modernity, East and West, and philosophy and practice. Readers are encouraged to reflect on their engagement with martial arts, questioning what is practised and how and why it is practised in their particular cultural context. Japanese Language Overview: ジョン・P・キーナンの「武道の神秘性：マクファーレン教授への応答」は、東洋の武道が西洋でどのように受容・変容されているかを探求した挑発的な記事です。キーナンは、西洋における武道の実践が、しばしばその東洋の精神的・人文的背景を失い、単なる運動能力や自己防衛に還元されていると主張します。彼は「ティーンエイジ・ミュータント・ニンジャ・タートルズ」のようなポピュラー文化の例を挙げ、武道の深い意味が商品化されていると批判します。また、無心や自発性といった哲学的概念の過度な単純化に警鐘を鳴らし、これらの概念がより広範な中国・日本思想の中にどのように組み込まれているかを理解する必要性を強調します。この論文は、武道研究の分野において、伝統と現代性、東洋と西洋、哲学と実践の相互関係を理解する上で重要な貢献となっています。  As my time in Japan draws to a close, I find myself reflecting—or at least attempting to make sense of—what I have experienced over the past quarter-century. Below, I share my thoughts on what I perceive to be a cultural trait of overly focusing on the negative. As I often quip with friends: In Japan, you only know if you are happy when you are miserable. I aim to explore what research suggests on this matter and consider potential alternative interpretations. However, this is a deeply personal reflection, shaped by my lived experience within Japan rather than detached, external analysis. A Culture of Critique: Hansei and Tanin no MeOne of the most enduring cultural traits I have observed in Japan is the profound entrenchment of self-critique and external validation in daily life. At the heart of this lies the concept of hansei (反省), often translated as self-reflection. Hansei encourages individuals to critically evaluate their actions, learn from mistakes, and strive to avoid repeating them. Its roots lie in Confucian and Buddhist traditions, where humility and personal improvement are deeply valued. However, in contemporary Japanese society, hansei frequently manifests as a hyper-awareness of failure. Consider the practice of hansei-kai (reflection meetings) in the workplace. These sessions often focus almost exclusively on identifying what went wrong, leaving little room for recognising achievements. This emphasis can make even minor errors the focal point of discussion, overshadowing any progress or success. Complementing hansei is the concept of tanin no me (他人の目), or "the eyes of others". Research by Markus and Kitayama (Culture and the Self) highlights how Japanese individuals are socialised to be acutely aware of how others perceive them. This external gaze often fosters behaviours aimed at avoiding criticism rather than pursuing personal growth or self-expression. The fear of public embarrassment, a deeply ingrained cultural concern, frequently eclipses any motivation to celebrate progress or take risks. Hyper-Criticism and the Struggles of International MarriagesInternational marriages in Japan often reveal the challenges posed by this cultural focus on hyper-criticism. While all relationships require understanding and compromise, the cultural gap between Japanese and non-Japanese partners can lead to profound misunderstandings. One significant factor is the way critique is often framed in Japanese relationships—not as rejection, but as a means of fostering self-improvement or harmony. However, for non-Japanese partners, especially those from cultures that prioritise explicit affirmation and praise, this can feel deeply alienating. Examples from Marital Dynamics
Hyper-Criticism Beyond Marriage: Martial Arts and Workplaces. The challenge of hyper-criticism extends beyond personal relationships and can be particularly evident in fields such as martial arts and professional environments. Martial ArtsForeign practitioners of Japanese martial arts often encounter a relentless focus on flaws, with instructors rarely offering praise for progress. The traditional teaching style emphasises rigorous correction and repetition, which may feel dismissive to those unfamiliar with this approach.
Workplace Dynamics: In professional settings, hyper-criticism often manifests in the form of relentless feedback on errors or areas for improvement, with little acknowledgment of achievements. While this approach fosters collective growth, foreign employees frequently struggle with the absence of individual affirmation. Over time, this dynamic can lead to frustration, reduced morale, and a perception of being undervalued. Education: Cultivating Perfectionism This cultural focus on negativity begins early in life. The Japanese education system is heavily examination-oriented, with curricula prioritising mastery of content for high-stakes entrance exams. Success is often measured by the ability to reproduce correct answers under pressure rather than creativity or exploratory learning. Stevenson and Stigler (The Learning Gap) argue that this approach fosters an emphasis on avoiding failure rather than embracing risk. Teachers commonly highlight mistakes as a means of guiding students, but this often results in a narrowing of focus. The fear of failure and obsession with perfectionism can stifle curiosity and discourage innovation, creating a generation of learners adept at avoiding error but hesitant to take creative or intellectual risks. Gaman and Resilience: The Virtue of Endurance Another cultural pillar is gaman (我慢), a concept loosely translating to endurance or perseverance. Gaman instils the virtue of enduring hardship without complaint and is deeply celebrated in Japanese society. This mindset is particularly visible in collective responses to crises, such as the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. While the international community admired Japan’s ability to maintain order and composure during such devastating events, this stoicism often came at the cost of emotional openness. The cultural emphasis on enduring rather than processing or expressing feelings reinforced a societal tendency to suppress vulnerability, sometimes to the detriment of individual well-being. Balancing Criticism and Growth: The Role of Kaizen. Yet, Japan's cultural narrative is not solely one of negativity. The concept of kaizen (改善), or "continuous improvement", offers a counterpoint. Originating in the manufacturing sector and famously applied by companies such as Toyota, kaizen promotes incremental change and the celebration of small successes alongside constructive criticism. Unlike hansei, which often centres on identifying faults, kaizen encourages a more balanced approach, fostering ownership and progress at every organisational level. However, even kaizen is not immune to the pervasive cultural tendency to focus on flaws, as the pursuit of perfection can sometimes overshadow its successes. A Changing Tide? Generational Shifts Interestingly, younger generations are challenging some of these entrenched cultural norms. Kato and Fukuda (Youth in Transition: The Changing Values of Japanese Millennials) suggest that millennials and Generation Z are less inclined to conform to traditional expectations, including relentless self-critique. Globalisation and digital connectivity have exposed younger Japanese individuals to alternative perspectives that celebrate individuality and embrace imperfection. In schools, holistic approaches such as project-based learning are gaining traction, encouraging students to view failure as an integral part of growth rather than a source of shame. Concluding Thoughts: As I reflect on my time in Japan, I see a society that thrives on and is constrained by its hyper-focus on the negative. While hansei, gaman, and tanin no me have undoubtedly contributed to Japan’s resilience and achievements, they also perpetuate a psychological landscape where fear of failure overshadows the joy of growth. However, this is not a static picture. Emerging trends and generational shifts suggest that Japan’s cultural narrative is evolving. Like all cultures, Japan’s strength lies in its ability to adapt while preserving what is meaningful. As I prepare to leave this country that has profoundly shaped me, I carry with me both the weight of its criticism and the inspiration of its perseverance. Perhaps this is Japan’s true balance—teaching us to embrace both joy and struggle as equally vital parts of the human experience. 日本における幸福と批判文化：ネガティブへの過剰な焦点に関する考察 このブログでは、著者が四半世紀にわたり日本で暮らしてきた経験をもとに、日本文化におけるネガティブな側面への過剰な焦点について考察しています。以下は主なポイントの要約です。 主なポイント
 Bibliographic Citation:
Nakajima, T. (2018). Japanese Martial Arts and the Sublimation of Violence: An Ethnographic Study of Shinkage-ryu. Martial Arts Studies, Issue 6, pp. 62-74. DOI: 10.18573/mas.68. Summary of Findings and AssertionsNakajima’s article, Japanese Martial Arts and the Sublimation of Violence, presents a unique and insightful ethnographic study of the Shinkage-ryu school of Japanese martial arts. His exploration of the central premise that martial arts serve not only as techniques for combat but also as methods for sublimating or transforming violence, while addressing broader philosophical and historical questions, is a perspective that will surely engage and intrigue our academic peers and researchers. The study focuses on the role of kata (pre-arranged forms) in turning violent actions into disciplined, constructive practices. Nakajima proposes that Shinkage-ryu offers a unique opportunity to observe how the transformation of violence is systematically taught through martial training. The use of kata is particularly emphasised as a critical mechanism for instilling in practitioners the ability to respond to violence in a controlled and non-lethal manner. According to Nakajima, this focus on sublimating violence contrasts with the common perception of martial arts as combat techniques aimed solely at defeating opponents. Through over 12 years of fieldwork in a Shinkage-ryu dojo, Nakajima observed that students are taught to ‘move in under the sword,’ not as a physical tactic alone, but as a way to negate violence entirely. The article asserts that classical Japanese martial arts do not merely prepare practitioners for physical confrontations but cultivate a mindset that neutralises violence through understanding and mastery of movement. The concept of marobashi, or the moment when violence is sublimated, is crucial to this study. Marobashi refers to the instant when, through the correct application of kata, the practitioner’s sword avoids contact with the opponent’s body, demonstrating a victory without the need to cause harm. This notion challenges the common assumption that martial arts must lead to the physical domination of one’s opponent. Situating the Article within the FieldNakajima’s work contributes significantly to martial arts studies by addressing gaps in the existing literature concerning classical martial arts. Much of the scholarship on Japanese martial arts has historically concentrated on modern disciplines such as judo and kendo, both of which became part of Japan’s educational curriculum after the Second World War. These arts are often studied through the lens of sportification, focusing on competitive elements and physical education. Nakajima’s ethnographic approach, however, offers a fresh perspective by examining classical martial traditions that have been mainly overlooked in academic research. Shinkage-ryu, unlike judo and kendo, has retained its classical form, and its pedagogical methods have not been widely adapted to the sport or educational arenas. This distinction makes Nakajima’s study particularly valuable, highlighting the philosophical and ethical dimensions of martial arts that remain primarily hidden within traditional dojo settings. Furthermore, the article engages with interdisciplinary frameworks, drawing on anthropology, philosophy, and history to deepen the analysis of how martial arts are not simply about violence but about controlling, managing, and ultimately sublimating it. This approach challenges more mechanistic interpretations of martial arts that focus solely on physical techniques, instead presenting martial arts as practices deeply intertwined with ethical and philosophical training. Assessing its Contribution to the FieldNakajima’s ethnographic study of Shinkage-ryu is a valuable addition to the growing body of literature on the deeper philosophical aspects of martial arts. While previous studies have explored the historical evolution of martial arts, Nakajima's work stands out by focusing on the experience of training in a classical school, offering valuable insights into the psychological and ethical dimensions of martial arts practice. His work not only enriches our understanding of Shinkage-ryu but also provides a unique perspective on the broader field of martial arts studies. The article is a detailed exploration of kata and marobashi, a vital contribution. Nakajima illustrates that kata are not merely choreographed movements but are intended to guide practitioners towards moments of realisation where violence is transcended. This shift from seeing martial arts as a means to an end—combat or self-defence—towards understanding them as processes for self-reflection and moral growth is a notable element of the study. Nakajima also raises important questions about the role of martial arts in modern society. In the post-war period, martial arts were introduced into Japan’s school curriculum primarily to emphasise physical education and competition. Nakajima’s work suggests that this approach may have overlooked the more profound objectives of martial arts training, such as the development of moral virtues and the cultivation of a nonviolent ethos. His findings could potentially influence the modern practice of martial arts, encouraging a shift towards a more holistic approach that incorporates these deeper objectives. The article’s focus on Shinkage-ryu, a lesser-known classical school, enhances the discussion by highlighting the diversity within Japanese martial arts traditions. It challenges the dominant narrative that focuses on modern, sport-oriented martial arts, drawing attention to the rich philosophical heritage of classical martial arts, which have been preserved for centuries yet remain under-explored in contemporary scholarship. Future ConsiderationsNakajima’s study opens several exciting pathways for further research. One potential area of exploration is a comparative study of how different classical martial arts schools, such as Niten Ichi-ryu or Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto-ryu, approach the concept of sublimating violence. Such studies could provide a broader understanding of how various schools interpret violence and its transformation through martial practice, sparking new ideas and motivating further exploration. Further ethnographic studies could also examine how modern practitioners of classical martial arts integrate these philosophical teachings into their daily lives. How do the ethical lessons learned in the dojo influence practitioners outside the training hall? This area could provide valuable insights into the relevance of martial arts philosophy in contemporary society. Additionally, Nakajima’s emphasis on marobashi raises essential questions about how practitioners interpret and apply such abstract concepts in practice. Future research could investigate how different instructors across Japan teach these ideas and whether there is variation in how they are understood and applied. ConclusionTetsuya Nakajima’s Japanese Martial Arts and the Sublimation of Violence is a significant contribution to the study of martial arts. His work challenges traditional views of martial arts, offering a unique perspective on the philosophical underpinnings of classical Japanese martial traditions. Through his detailed ethnographic study of Shinkage-ryu, Nakajima demonstrates that martial arts are not solely about fighting but about learning to transcend violence through disciplined practice and moral cultivation. This challenging of traditional views will surely inspire and enlighten our academic peers and researchers, providing a foundation for future research into these ancient practices' ethical and philosophical dimensions. 研究の要約と主張中島哲哉の論文「日本の武道と暴力の昇華」は、武道の技術が単なる戦闘の手段ではなく、暴力を昇華・変換するための方法でもあるという独自かつ洞察に富んだ民族誌的研究です。この研究は、幅広い哲学的および歴史的な問題に取り組みながら、型（事前に決められた動作）が暴力的な行動を規律ある建設的な実践に変える役割に焦点を当てています。 中島は、神影流が、武道訓練を通じて暴力を体系的にどのように昇華するかを観察するためのユニークな機会を提供していると提案しています。特に型の使用が、暴力に対して制御された非致死的な方法で反応する能力を修練者に植え付ける重要なメカニズムとして強調されています。中島によれば、この暴力の昇華に焦点を当てることは、武道が対戦相手を打ち負かすための戦闘技術に過ぎないという一般的な認識とは対照的です。神影流道場で12年以上にわたって行われたフィールドワークを通じて、中島は、弟子たちが「刀の下に入り込む」ことを教えられている様子を観察しましたが、これは単なる物理的な戦術ではなく、暴力を完全に無効化する方法として教えられていました。 論文は、日本の古典的な武道が単なる物理的な対決の準備をするだけでなく、動作の理解と習得を通じて暴力を中和する心構えを育むものであると主張しています。この研究において重要な概念である円橋は、型の正しい応用によって修練者の刀が相手の体に触れることなく、勝利を示す瞬間を指します。この概念は、武道が必ずしも相手の身体的な支配に至るべきだという一般的な仮定に異議を唱えています。 中島の研究は、武道に関する既存の文献の欠点に取り組むことで、武道研究分野に大きく貢献しています。日本の武道に関する学術的な研究の多くは、歴史的に柔道や剣道といった近代的な武道に集中してきましたが、これらは第二次世界大戦後に日本の教育課程に取り入れられました。これらの武道は、競技要素や体育的な観点で研究されることが多いです。 一方で、中島の民族誌的アプローチは、これまで学術研究でほとんど見過ごされてきた古典的な武道伝統を掘り下げる新たな視点を提供しています。神影流は、柔道や剣道とは異なり、古典的な形を維持しており、その教育法は競技や教育の場に広く適応されていません。この違いが中島の研究を特に貴重なものにしており、伝統的な道場環境の中で隠れている武道の哲学的および倫理的な側面に光を当てています。 さらに、論文は人類学、哲学、歴史学などの学際的な枠組みを活用して、武道が単なる暴力に関するものではなく、暴力を制御し、管理し、最終的に昇華することに関するものであるという分析を深めています。このアプローチは、物理的な技術に焦点を当てた機械的な解釈に挑戦し、武道を倫理的・哲学的な訓練と深く結びついた実践として提示しています。  Bibliographic Citation:Fukushima, S. (1965). The Building of a National Army. The Developing Economies.
As I am one to point out often, the dire lack of understanding of BIG HISTORY, a term that encompasses the broad historical context of human civilisation, into which that of budo, and specifically karate, fit this week, I want to explore Fukushima's The Building of a National Army for it explore the militarisation and modernisation process into which modern budo and indeed karate fit. Despite what is often written, karate, as we know it today, is directly connected, shaped and propagated due to the militarization of Japan during the Meiji process. Before that, karate had fallen into disuse and, for many, disregard - a purposeless practice lacking relevance to the modern age. Regardless of what you have read or been told, modern karate (sometimes referenced as 'traditional ') is undoubtedly the product of mindsets, ideals, and body mechanics that trace large swaths of what they are to the Meiji period! Fukushima's article highlights that it was one of the driving forces that drove the "modernisation" of what, ironically, has become known as "traditional" karate. Summary of Findings and Assertions In The Building of a National Army, Shingo Fukushima offers an in-depth analysis of Japan's military modernisation, concentrating on the pivotal changes in the armed forces from the Tokugawa period to the Meiji Restoration. Fukushima posits that Japan's shift from a system of feudal retainers to a nationalised military force was central to its efforts to defend against Western colonial powers. He traces how the samurai class, once the primary military force, was progressively replaced by a conscripted national army, reflecting Western models, particularly those of France and Prussia. The article discusses critical military reforms, including disbanding feudal armies and forming a centralised military under the Meiji government. Fukushima asserts that Japan's military modernisation was not solely a defensive measure but also served the broader aims of national sovereignty and prestige. The article underscores the crucial role of leaders from the samurai class in shaping the modern military while also noting that the Meiji government's adoption of Western military technologies, such as firearms and artillery, was driven by Japan's desire to resist Western imperialism. This shift to modernisation, particularly the introduction of conscription, faced resistance from the lower classes and triggered political conflict within the ruling elite. Situating the Article within the Field Fukushima's work stands out in military history and political modernisation, offering unique insights into Japan's distinctive process of Westernisation. His analysis aligns with broader academic discourse on the comparative modernisation of military institutions in non-European nations. Scholars like C. E. Black and A. S. Banks, who have categorised Japan's modernisation as self-directed, have argued that Japan's approach diverged from Western tutelage models. Fukushima critiques this classification, suggesting that while Western models influenced Japan's modernisation, it retained distinct characteristics shaped by internal social dynamics and the ideological influence of the samurai class. The article also illuminates the strategic thinking behind Japan's military modernisation. Focusing on the motivations of Meiji leaders, particularly their goal of preventing Japan from being colonised, Fukushima's work provides a framework for understanding Japan's imperial ambitions and the militaristic path it later pursued. His examination of Japan's military modernisation also contributes to broader discussions about how military institutions preserve and transform national identity. Assessing its Contribution to the Field Fukushima's article significantly contributes to studying Japan's military history, offering a detailed analysis of the internal and external forces that shaped its modernisation. One of the article's key strengths is its focus on the intersection between military reform and socio-political change. Fukushima delves into the complexities of Japan's feudal society, exploring the tensions between the samurai class and the government's efforts to nationalise military power. His critique of the Meiji government's reliance on former samurai leaders to lead military reforms provides a nuanced perspective on modernisation as a top-down initiative. Additionally, Fukushima's use of primary sources, including government documents and military ordinances, enhances the scholarly rigour of his analysis. His work offers crucial context for understanding the broader geopolitical landscape of 19th-century East Asia, particularly Japan's relationship with Western powers and its strategic responses to foreign military pressure【16†source】. Future Considerations Fukushima's analysis opens several avenues for future research on Japan's military modernisation. One area ripe for further exploration is the role of military modernisation in shaping Japan's domestic political structure. While Fukushima touches on the influence of the samurai class in the new national army, further research could examine how this class's integration into the modern state contributed to Japan's later military expansionism. Moreover, as the article highlights the influence of Western military models on Japan, future studies could investigate the long-term impact of this Westernisation on Japan's military culture, particularly in the context of its imperial ambitions. The question of how Japanese leaders adapted or resisted Western models could provide valuable insights into Japan's military trajectory in the 20th century. Finally, Fukushima's work raises pertinent questions regarding the relationship between military modernisation and national identity. As Japan's military became more centralised and nationalised, the role of the common soldier—drawn primarily from the peasantry—grew increasingly important. Future research could examine how this shift affected Japan's class structure and the relationship between military and civilian governance. In conclusion, Fukushima's article is essential to understanding Japan's military transformation during a crucial historical period. It offers a detailed, well-researched analysis of the Meiji government's efforts to modernise the military while safeguarding Japan's sovereignty. Focusing on this process's social, political, and military dimensions, Fukushima provides a comprehensive view of how national identity and geopolitical forces can shape and shape military modernisation. Japanese Language Summary 福島晋吾の『国軍の建設』についての要約 福島晋吾の論文「国軍の建設」は、江戸時代から明治維新にかけての日本の軍事近代化についての詳細な分析を提供しています。福島は、日本が封建的な軍事制度から国民軍へと移行したことが、西洋の植民地主義に対抗するために不可欠であったと主張しています。特に、武士階級がかつての主な軍事力から、西洋の軍事モデル（フランスやプロイセンの例）に基づいた徴兵制の国民軍へと徐々に取って代わられていく過程が描かれています。 福島は、日本の軍事近代化が単なる防御的な動きに留まらず、国家主権や国威の向上を目指したものであるとしています。また、明治政府が火器や大砲などの西洋の軍事技術を採用したことが、西洋帝国主義に対抗するための現実的な選択であったことも指摘されています。この変革は、特に徴兵制の導入により、下層階級からの抵抗や政治的対立を引き起こしました。 論文の位置付け 福島の研究は、日本の独特な西洋化のプロセスに関する洞察を提供し、軍事史や政治的近代化の分野において重要な位置を占めています。彼の分析は、非西欧諸国における軍事制度の比較近代化に関する広範な学術的議論と一致しており、C.E.ブラックやA.S.バンクスのような学者が分類した日本の「自律的近代化」という見解を批判的に再検討しています。 さらに、福島の論文は、軍事改革と国家建設の関係を明らかにしており、日本の指導者たちが西洋列強による植民地化を防ぐことを目指していたことを強調しています。彼の研究は、軍事制度がどのようにして国民のアイデンティティを保持し、変容させたかを理解するための重要な枠組みを提供しています。 論文の貢献と将来の研究の可能性 福島の論文は、日本の軍事史研究において重要な貢献をしています。特に、軍事改革が政治的・社会的変化とどのように交差したかに焦点を当てた点が評価されています。武士階級と政府の緊張関係に対する彼の分析は、トップダウン的な近代化の物語に新たな視点を提供しています。 福島の分析は、今後の研究においても多くの方向性を示唆しています。例えば、軍事近代化が日本の国内政治構造にどのような影響を与えたかや、西洋の軍事モデルが日本の軍事文化にどのような影響を与えたかなどが、さらに探求されるべきテーマとして挙げられます。 OpenAI. (2024). ChatGPT (4o) [Large language model]. https://chatgpt.com/c/15243f03-db43-4f1b-91ef-026a88d757d8 |
James M. HatchInternational Educator who happens to be passionate about Chito Ryu Karate. Born in Ireland, educated in Canada, matured in Japan Archives
February 2025
Categories
All
|
RSS Feed