The Psychology of Dependency in Traditional Martial Arts: A Cross-Cultural Perspective

Traditional martial arts in Japan and China exhibit a layered psychology of dependency, deeply embedded in historical, psychological, cultural, and economic factors. While these arts offer structured paths towards self-mastery, they have often evolved into systems where loyalty to authority can overshadow individual growth. This dependency is frequently centred on the master figure, whose charisma, authority, and perceived esoteric knowledge draw practitioners from diverse backgrounds into long-term devotion relationships. This article explores these dimensions of dependency and examines how they may shape or limit practitioners' mental and physical development.

Historical Context and Hierarchical Influence
Traditional Japanese and Chinese martial arts systems, such as budo and wushu, trace their origins to feudal societies where hierarchical structures were essential for social order. Japanese budo, practised by the samurai class, and Chinese gongfu, which emerged from monastic and martial traditions, reinforced loyalty and respect for authority. Students were encouraged to follow their sensei or master without question, as questioning could jeopardise the master's authority, group harmony, and, historically, survival. This idea of absolute loyalty remains deeply rooted within many martial traditions, cultivating a view of the master as the ultimate authority in knowledge and practice.

However, this idealised loyalty often contrasts with the historical reality of marital relationships. Instances of students who defied, surpassed, or even confronted their masters reveal that martial mastery frequently demanded personal resilience and, at times, rebellion. For example, in the Shaolin Temple tradition, Zhang Sanfeng, credited with founding Taiji, is said to have diverged from Shaolin techniques to create a new internal style focused on qi (internal energy) rather than sheer physical force. By innovating beyond his teachers' instructions, Zhang exemplified how martial mastery sometimes required moving beyond established traditions. These historical examples serve to enlighten us about the complexity of master-student relationships in martial arts.

Another case is the renowned Japanese swordsman Miyamoto Musashi, who chose a path of self-guided exploration rather than allegiance to a single school. Developing his style, Niten Ichi-ryu, Musashi frequently defied conventions, defeating masters from established schools across Japan. His journey underscores the notion that self-reliance and independent exploration can lead to genuine mastery, challenging the traditional expectation of unquestioning loyalty.

In some cases, students went as far as to confront or even kill their masters. During Japan's Edo period, Asaoka Chikaranosuke, a student of kyujutsu (archery), killed his teacher, Kiyonaga Matabei, after experiencing oppression at the master's hands. Such acts, seen as justified within the honour-bound context of the time, illustrate the limits of loyalty and reveal the underlying tensions in the master-student relationship. These examples suggest a more nuanced historical perspective, where martial mastery involved skill development and personal autonomy that sometimes required challenging or departing from one's master.

Psychological Dependency and Guru Dynamics
The dependency that emerges in martial arts settings mirrors "guru dynamics," where students view the master as a singular source of knowledge and insight. This dynamic transcends cultural boundaries, as Aoyagi and Sakurai (2011) demonstrated in their cross-cultural study, revealing that martial arts practitioners of various backgrounds often develop a dependency on their instructors. Here, the master is idealised as the gatekeeper of rare knowledge, and limited access to their teaching—often through exclusive seminars or events—reinforces this perception.

Additionally, martial arts schools may foster the belief that the master holds unique powers or "secret" knowledge. These claims persist despite significant evidence challenging their authenticity, as many "esoteric" techniques hinge on basic anatomical principles accessible to any dedicated student. By portraying such skills as mystical, masters can cultivate a sense of dependency, whereby students feel that only prolonged guidance can unlock these insights.

Cultural Constructs and the Influence of Amae
The Japanese concept of amae (a "childlike dependency" on authority) encapsulates how students form attachments to authority within martial arts. This social dynamic, central to Japanese psychology, describes a need for approval that reinforces deference to authority. Martial arts schools strengthen this dependency through rituals, hierarchies, and expectations of loyalty. Aoyagi & Sakurai (2011) found that even international students internalise this hierarchical dependency, conforming to the cultural expectations of harmony and loyalty within the dojo. While supportive of group identity, such dependency may constrain independent growth, reinforcing an attachment to the dojo over individual development.

Economic Motivations: Membership Versus Mastery
The economic framework of modern dojos often supports dependency by prioritising retention over skill mastery. In Fighting Sports, Rinehart (1996) observed how belt and rank systems can function as financial commitments, subtly encouraging students to remain involved through incremental certifications. Each level, requiring further investment in fees and time, creates a structure that binds students to the dojo. This insight into the financial dynamics of martial arts can help us understand the role of economic factors in fostering dependency.

Additionally, the opportunity to train directly under the master is often rare, creating a sense of scarcity around the master's teaching. This scarcity compels students to remain within the system, hoping eventually to attain more access. In this way, financial dependency and devotion to the dojo become intertwined, with the ultimate promise of "secret" or advanced knowledge remaining perpetually out of reach.

Cult of Personality and the Master Figure
In many martial arts schools, dependency on the master evolves into a "cult of personality," where the instructor is perceived as possessing near-mystical qualities. In their studies on charismatic leadership, Conger & Kanungo (1998) demonstrated that followers in hierarchical systems often idealise their leaders. Martial arts masters may capitalise on this by nurturing a persona possessing unique or supernatural knowledge.
Frequently, techniques that involve physiological principles, such as joint manipulation or timing, are presented as "secretive," encouraging the belief that only the master can execute them fully. These claims, often unsubstantiated compared to basic physiological knowledge, contribute to a sense of mystique that binds students to the dojo and its leader.
Tajfel & Turner's Social Identity Theory illustrates how loyalty to a group fosters acceptance of the master's claims, often without critical evaluation, further entrenching dependency.

Erosion of Practical Efficacy and Mental Well-Being
The emphasis on loyalty and dependency over skill mastery can ultimately inhibit personal and mental growth. Studies by Kim & Park (2003) suggest that dependency-oriented systems in martial arts often impede students' resilience, as they focus on pleasing the master rather than cultivating self-confidence and autonomy. Such dependency limits the traditional goals of martial arts, leaving students more concerned with maintaining their dojo relationships than developing true martial efficacy.
By fostering critical engagement, we can empower practitioners to navigate the complex dynamics of dependency in traditional martial arts and truly master their craft.Shifting martial arts practices from dependency to autonomy involves a cultural change within dojos. Fostering shoshin (beginner's mind), a mindset that values open inquiry and self-reflection, can support students in challenging assumptions and evaluating teachings independently. Emphasising skills, resilience, and critical engagement allow martial arts to progress from devotion-based systems to disciplines focused on genuine self-mastery and mental well-being.

ConclusionThe understanding of dependency in martial arts aligns closely with modern educational theory, where autonomy, critical engagement, and self-assessment are essential to genuine learning and mastery. The works of Piaget and Vygotsky reveal that active engagement and exploration are crucial for developing an authentic understanding of any discipline. Constructivist theories reinforce that learning is not passive but is most effective when individuals adapt and critically engage with the material, building on prior knowledge. In martial arts, dependency structures often work against these principles by encouraging conformity rather than exploration.

Educational theorist John Dewey advocated for learning environments that foster independence and challenge passive adherence to authority. Dewey's ideas suggest that when practised with an emphasis on personal agency, martial arts can transform into authentic learning experiences that cultivate resilience, adaptability, and self-confidence. Hattie's (2008) research on effective teaching highlights the importance of student agency, goal-setting, and self-reflection as critical elements of successful learning. These principles also apply to martial arts: by enabling students to think critically and assess teachings independently, dojos can foster environments where true mastery flourishes.


Thus, martial arts practitioners should remain mindful of situations where dependency on an inner circle limits growth. Where access to exclusive knowledge is selectively withheld or where the legitimacy of the master is ambiguous, practitioners may find their development hindered by misplaced loyalty. Recognising these dynamics, martial arts can evolve from systems of dependency to practices that uphold tradition while fostering critical thinking, self-mastery, and lifelong resilience.

日本や中国の伝統武道には、歴史的、心理的、文化的、経済的な要因が絡み合った依存の心理が深く根付いています。これらの武道は自己鍛錬の道を提供していますが、師範への忠誠やカリスマ性が個人の成長を制限する要因ともなり得ます。依存は多くの場合、師範の権威や秘伝の知識への信仰によって強化され、修行者の精神的および肉体的な発展に影響を与えます。成功した大組織のリーダーが、権力を強引に握り続けることは、心理的な脆弱さと自己愛に近い悲しい兆候であり、歴史が示すように、そのような指導者が亡くなった後、組織は崩壊し、最終的には過去の使い捨ての存在として忘れ去られていく運命にあります。​

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