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Thoughts on International & Global Education
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Musings on Japanese and Ryukyu Budo
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 Kindness (優しさ) is often hailed as one of humanity's greatest virtues. Yet, how frequently do we pause to consider its roots? Is our kindness genuinely authentic, or do insecurity and avoidance drive it? Similarly, cruelty (残酷さ) is frequently dismissed as wholly destructive, yet it too often emerges from the same unexamined source.
Though seemingly opposites, weak kindness and brutal cruelty can stem from the same place—a reactive, unconscious seeking either approval or dominance. This idea may feel provocative, even shocking, but it forces us to question the very foundations of our actions. Are they deliberate, courageous, and constructive, or do fear and avoidance shape them? To act with authentic kindness or controlled cruelty requires a rare kind of courage: the courage to confront our inner shadows, challenge comforting but false narratives, and embrace a strength rooted in self-mastery. Drawing on both Eastern and Western philosophies, this reflection explores how genuine kindness and purposeful cruelty are intertwined and why both demand an honest dialogue with the self. The Roots of Weak Kindness Modern kindness often appears as a desire to please, avoid conflict, or gain moral approval. However, this type of kindness frequently lacks depth or courage. In teaching, for example, I have hesitated to challenge students rigorously, fearing I might seem too harsh. Yet this reluctance was not kindness; it was avoidance—a failure to confront discomfort for the sake of genuine growth. Similarly, brutal cruelty can manifest in various forms, such as emotional manipulation or physical aggression, all stemming from the same reactive, unexamined self that drives weak kindness. Eastern philosophy offers a striking critique of such superficial kindness. In 禅 (Zen Buddhism), genuine compassion often requires discomfort. Zen practitioners are challenged by 公案 (koans)—paradoxical riddles designed to dismantle illusions. One well-known koan declares, 「仏に会えば、仏を殺せ」 ("If you meet the Buddha on the road, kill him"). While jarring, this statement reminds us that growth demands the destruction of comforting but false attachments, even those we hold most sacred. Similarly, in 儒教 (Confucianism), kindness (仁) is inseparable from justice (義) and propriety (礼). Confucius taught that kindness must be tempered by moral fortitude (道徳的強さ). Acts of kindness that avoid necessary confrontation or shield others from reality are not virtuous—they are irresponsible. Genuine kindness empowers others, even when it requires discomfort. The Armour of Cruelty On the opposite end of the spectrum lies cruelty, which is often a mask for insecurity. Cruelty can manifest as aggression or emotional withdrawal, both rooted in the same reactive, unexamined self that drives weak kindness. While weak kindness placates, cruelty dominates, seeking to project strength where there is none. The samurai concept of 切捨御免 (kiri-sute gomen) offers a disciplined approach to cruelty. Samurai were permitted to strike down an insult to their honour, but this right was bound by responsibility and restraint. Acts of cruelty were deliberate, not impulsive, and only used to uphold societal balance. This principle reminds us that cruelty, when exercised, must be controlled and purposeful. Western philosophy aligns with this perspective. ニーチェ (Nietzsche) critiqued '奴隷道徳' ('slave morality'), a term he used to describe a moral system that values meekness, humility, and compassion, which he believed were born out of a sense of inferiority and resentment. He argued that acts of cruelty or dominance often stem from this resentment or weakness. True strength, he asserted, lies in overcoming these reactions, choosing deliberate action over-reactivity. ユング (Jung) deepened this idea with his concept of the shadow (影)—the darker aspects of our psyche that, if ignored, drive destructive behaviours. Jung believed that mastering the shadow transforms cruelty into purpose and authenticity. From Reactivity to Authenticity Both weak kindness and brutal cruelty have their roots in insecurity and a lack of self-awareness. However, the journey towards authenticity is within our grasp, and it begins with introspection and the courage to confront these impulses. This self-awareness is not a burden, but a powerful tool that can transform our actions and relationships. The teachings of 武道 (budo) offer a framework for this transformation. 武道 is a Japanese term for martial arts, which are not just about physical combat but also about cultivating a disciplined mind and a respectful attitude. A 武道家 (martial artist) trains to harm but acts with restraint and purpose. This balance—of strength and compassion—enables authentic kindness. Kindness in the dojo is not sparing correction but constructing it constructively, ensuring safety and growth. Similarly, cruelty is not indiscriminate aggression but a measured response used only to uphold justice or protection. Cultivating Genuine Kindness To move from reactivity to authenticity, we must engage in rigorous self-examination. While uncomfortable, this process is essential for cultivating actions rooted in integrity.
A Challenge to Reflect There is a saying in 武道: 「庭にいる武士の方が、戦争にいる庭師より良い」 ("It is better to be a warrior in a garden than a gardener in a war"). This proverb encapsulates the essence of authentic kindness. Genuine kindness is not the absence of strength but the mastery of it. It is not about avoiding discomfort but confronting it with courage and purpose. This confrontation is not a hindrance, but a catalyst for our personal and moral growth. This reflection challenges the prevailing narrative around kindness and cruelty. Both, when rooted in insecurity, fail to serve a higher purpose. Weak kindness enables complacency, while brutal cruelty isolates and destroys. True virtue lies in mastering both, choosing authentic action over-reactive impulse. As you consider your actions, ask yourself:
優しさ (優しさ) は人間の美徳とされますが、根底にある動機を問うことは稀です。本物の優しさは、時に不快感や対立を伴い、真の成長を促します。一方、残酷さ (残酷さ) は不安から生じ、支配や攻撃に表れます。両者の源は未熟な自己であり、その克服には内省と影 (影) の統合が必要です。真の優しさとは、強さと制御から生まれる意図的な選択であり、自己対話を通じてのみ達成されます。
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 I am not a doctrinal scholar, but rather an interested member of the Roman Catholic community seeking to explore the complexities of the Church’s response to suffering. Throughout its history, the Roman Catholic Church has wielded considerable influence over moral, spiritual, and social matters, shaping the lives of billions. However, this authority has often been accompanied by tensions and contradictions, particularly in its responses to human suffering. The Church's claims to divine authority, rooted in Scripture and tradition, have been challenged as society evolves, raising questions about whether its teachings genuinely align with Christ’s message of love and compassion.
The Problem of Suffering and the Church’s Response One of the most enduring critiques of the Church concerns its stance on suffering. Stephen Fry’s well-known critique, questioning how a benevolent God could permit suffering such as childhood cancer, encapsulates this issue. The Church’s responses often invoke theological constructs such as free will, the "soul-making" theodicy, and divine providence (CCC 311-314). However, these explanations frequently fall short of addressing the emotional and existential anguish experienced by individuals, leaving many feeling abandoned by an institution that claims to embody divine love. Marriage, as an institution governed by the Church, serves as a pertinent example of this broader issue. The Church upholds marriage as a sacrament, reflecting Christ’s union with the Church (Ephesians 5:25-32; CCC 1601). Yet, it enforces rigid rules, such as the prohibition of divorce, which can exacerbate suffering in cases of irreconcilable breakdowns, loveless unions, or even abusive relationships. The insistence on permanence, often dictated by celibate clergy, raises critical questions: can those who have never experienced the complexities of marriage truly understand its challenges? Moreover, the pressure to maintain a failing marriage in accordance with Church teaching often leads to psychological distress, fostering feelings of guilt and unworthiness. The annulment process, while intended as a compassionate solution, is frequently criticised for being opaque, slow, and legalistic, leaving many feeling trapped within a framework that prioritises rules over human dignity (Familiaris Consortio, 1981). Celibacy, Authority, and the Limits of Empathy. The Church’s emphasis on celibacy among its clergy has been both a source of strength and contention. Historically, the majority of saints canonised by the Church have been priests, nuns, or martyrs, reinforcing the perception that celibate lives are spiritually superior (Sacerdotalis Caelibatus, 1967). This has contributed to a clerical hierarchy that often appears disconnected from the lived experiences of ordinary laypeople. Christ’s own celibacy may have set a precedent, encouraging the Church to idealise religious life over marital life. However, critics argue that this focus has led to an institutional blind spot regarding the complexities of human relationships and suffering. This raises a fundamental contradiction: if celibacy is the preferred state, yet marriage is necessary for human continuity, how can the Church claim authority over both without recognising the inherent tensions? Additionally, the celibate clergy's lack of first-hand experience in marital life may result in an oversimplified, idealised vision of marriage that does not reflect its practical challenges. This disconnect can contribute to a lack of pastoral sensitivity when addressing the struggles of married couples, perpetuating a cycle of alienation and disillusionment among the faithful. Doctrinal Evolution and Self-Interest A broader critique of the Church’s legitimacy focuses on the development of doctrine over time. Many of the rules governing marriage, suffering, and sin were not explicitly instituted by Christ but rather emerged through centuries of theological interpretation and ecclesiastical authority. This raises the question: are these rules divinely inspired, or are they institutional constructs shaped by historical, cultural, and political contexts? For example, the institutionalisation of marriage as a sacrament was partly driven by the Church’s desire to regulate inheritance and property rights. Similarly, the celibate priesthood, often justified as a means of spiritual purity, was historically influenced by practical considerations, including economic and administrative control. Such developments reflect an expansion of institutional power that may not always align with Christ’s original message of love and compassion (Lumen Gentium, 1964). The Church’s resistance to doctrinal change, particularly regarding marriage and family life, often fuels perceptions of self-preservation. Critics argue that rigid adherence to outdated interpretations may serve institutional interests rather than the spiritual and emotional needs of the faithful. This tension highlights the Church’s struggle to reconcile tradition with contemporary realities. The Struggle for Reform and Relevance In response to these critiques, the Church has made efforts to emphasise a broader vision of holiness that includes lay vocations. Vatican II (1962–1965) sought to affirm that all people, regardless of their state in life, are called to holiness (Lumen Gentium, 40). Pope Francis, through documents such as Gaudete et Exsultate (2018), has further promoted this inclusive vision. However, meaningful reform requires more than doctrinal statements—it demands a fundamental shift in how the Church approaches authority, empathy, and pastoral care. The tension between upholding tradition and adapting to modern realities remains a critical challenge. As long as the Church prioritises institutional authority over the lived experiences of its members, questions about its legitimacy will persist. A more pastoral approach—one that listens to and accompanies people in their struggles—is essential if the Church is to maintain relevance and credibility in the modern world. Conclusion: Seeking Balance in Suffering Ultimately, the legitimacy of the Church’s claims to authority hinges on its ability to guide individuals in balancing their personal relationship with the divine, their role within the community, and their own well-being. Its teachings on suffering, exemplified in its approach to marriage, must reflect an equilibrium between doctrinal fidelity and genuine pastoral care (Amoris Laetitia, 2016). The Church must ask itself: is it fostering a path that enables individuals to seek divine grace within the support of their community, or is it merely reinforcing institutional barriers? True reform lies in acknowledging that suffering is not a singular experience but one intertwined with personal, communal, and spiritual dimensions, requiring understanding, flexibility, and above all, compassion. 私は教義の学者ではなく、単なるカトリック信者として、教会が苦しみにどのように対応しているかを考察したい。カトリック教会は歴史を通じて道徳的・霊的な問題に影響を及ぼしてきたが、その権威には矛盾が伴う。特に離婚禁止などの厳格な結婚観は、多くの信者に苦しみを与える可能性がある。独身の聖職者が結婚について決定を下すことに批判があり、教会の教義と信徒の実生活の乖離が指摘される。教会は教義の厳格さと信徒の現実的な課題のバランスを取る必要がある。  In martial arts, the term “curriculum” is often used, but upon closer inspection, it is frequently little more than a checklist of techniques or kata to be learned. An authentic curriculum, however, is far more comprehensive. It is a structured framework that outlines what students should know and addresses how and why they learn it. It incorporates clear objectives, pathways for progression, methods of assessment, and pedagogical strategies to ensure meaningful growth for every student.
John Hattie’s extensive research into pedagogy, learning, and achievement provides insights that can transform martial arts instruction. By adopting his evidence-based findings, martial arts instructors can transcend tradition and discipline, creating environments where students learn and thrive. Rethinking the Martial Arts Curriculum A robust martial arts curriculum must extend beyond a mere “to-do” list of skills or techniques. It needs to provide a cohesive and fully articulated structure that supports student development across all levels of mastery. This involves both vertical articulation (progression within a discipline over time) and horizontal articulation (integration of complementary skills and concepts at each stage).
Hattie’s research offers several principles that can significantly enhance learning outcomes. When applied to martial arts instruction, these insights can revolutionise the way teachers engage with their students.
Beyond Technique: Building Relationships and Community Hattie’s research also emphasises the importance of teacher-student relationships. Martial arts instructors who cultivate trust, respect, and empathy create environments where students feel supported and motivated to succeed. This is particularly important in martial arts, where personal growth and character development are central to the discipline. Fostering community within the dojo can enhance students’ commitment, in addition to strong relationships. Group challenges, shared achievements, and milestone celebrations create a sense of belonging that reinforces the value of consistent practice. The Flaws in Existing Teaching Licence Many martial arts teaching licences today lack a sound pedagogical foundation. They are often treated as supplementary qualifications tied to achieving a specific dan rank rather than distinct credentials with their own rigorous expectations. This conflation undermines the development of effective teaching practices and does not adequately prepare instructors to foster student growth. The dan system, which measures technical skill and mastery, and the teaching licence system, which should assess instructional competence, must be treated as separate pathways. Teaching licences should require a deep understanding of pedagogy, including formative and summative assessment strategies, coaching principles, and the ability to design and implement a comprehensive curriculum. Without this distinction, martial arts schools risk stagnating, unable to help their students flourish to their fullest potential. A Paradigm Shift in Martial Arts Instruction Adopting Hattie’s principles requires a shift in traditional martial arts pedagogy. It challenges the command-driven model of instruction, replacing it with a more collaborative and student-centred approach. This transformation enhances technical development and cultivates critical thinking, resilience, and lifelong learning. This paradigm shift allows instructors to redefine their roles—not merely as transmitters of knowledge but as facilitators of growth. It aligns martial arts teaching with modern educational best practices while preserving the art’s rich traditions. Let’s Discuss Further If you are a martial arts instructor interested in exploring how these ideas can improve your teaching, I would be delighted to discuss them further. Please feel free to contact me at [email protected]. Together, we can ensure that martial arts education evolves to meet the needs of the 21st century while remaining rooted in its timeless values. 武道における「カリキュラム」という言葉はよく使われますが、実際には単なる技術や型のチェックリストである場合が多いです。本物のカリキュラムは、学ぶべき内容だけでなく、学ぶ理由や方法を体系的に構築したものです。明確な目標、進捗のための道筋、評価方法、教育戦略を含み、生徒が着実に成長できるように設計されています。 ジョン・ハッティの教育学研究は、武道の指導を変革する貴重な知見を提供します。証拠に基づいたハッティの知見を取り入れることで、武道指導者は伝統や規律を超え、生徒が学び、成長できる環境を作り出すことが可能になります。強固なカリキュラムは、垂直的進展（技術の段階的な進歩）と水平的統合（関連スキルや概念の統合）の両方を含む必要があります。また、継続的なフィードバック（形成的評価）と成果測定（総括的評価）を通じ、生徒の進歩を支援しながら測定することが重要です。 さらに、教師の明確な指導、目標設定、アクティブな関与、そして生徒の反省を促すことが、効果的な学習を支えます。武道指導者がこれらを実践することで、生徒は深い理解と成長を得られるだけでなく、個人の成長とコミュニティ意識を育むことができます。現行の教士資格は教育学的基盤が欠けていることが多く、技術的な段位制度と指導能力の評価を分ける必要があります。これらの変革により、武道教育は21世紀のニーズに応えつつ、武道の伝統を守り続けることができます。 Jan. 16., A “Global” Education for All: Recognising Interdependence to Enhance Human Flourishing.1/16/2025  In an increasingly interconnected and interdependent world, the role of international education has never been more significant. Grounded in the pioneering work of researchers such as Jeff Thompson, Mary Hayden, and others at the University of Bath, the cornerstones of international education focus on equipping students with the skills, attitudes, and knowledge they need to navigate the complexities of the 21st century. These foundational elements prepare students for active participation in the global knowledge economy and enable them to lead purposeful and impactful lives. This blog explores these cornerstones and their broader relevance to national education systems.
Defining a Truly Global EducationThis conceptualisation of a truly global education is grounded in my work within national and international schools and my research and collaboration with colleagues in these settings. It is essential to distinguish between traditional "international" education and a more expansive and inclusive idea of "global" education. While "international" education often centres on connections between nations, focusing on exchanges, partnerships, and competition, a truly global perspective moves beyond national interests. It acknowledges the interdependence of all nations and recognises that flourishing in one region cannot come at the expense of another. In a global world, nations temper their demands and prioritise sustainable practices that enable other nations to thrive. This vision of global education challenges the nation-centric paradigm by fostering a shared sense of responsibility and stewardship for the planet. It shifts the focus from competition to collaboration, ensuring that education addresses the well-being of humanity and the natural world. Skills: The Tools for a Global FutureInternational education prioritises the development of core skills that underpin global competence. Jeff Thompson and Mary Hayden extensively research the necessity of critical thinking, collaboration, communication, and adaptability in preparing students for a rapidly changing world. Building on this, the Global Mindedness and Intercultural Competencies (GM+IC) framework, which I develop through consulting and writing, provides a practical model for fostering these skills. Additionally, the work being done at Monash University's Intercultural Lab enriches this field by advancing intercultural understanding and global competence. For example:
Attitudes: Cultivating Empathy and Open-MindednessInternational education encourages attitudes of empathy, curiosity, and respect for diversity. These values sit at the heart of fostering global citizenship. Hayden and Thompson emphasise that students develop an appreciation for multiple perspectives and a commitment to ethical engagement with global challenges. This is achieved through:
Knowledge: Building a Foundation for UnderstandingWhile skills and attitudes form the scaffolding, knowledge is the foundation of international education. Hayden and Thompson advocate for curricula that integrate:
This approach calls for:
Concluding RemarksAchieving this vision of education requires a complete rethinking of its purpose and structure. It calls for a paradigm shift where education evolves from being a consumer good controlled by a few dominant states and worldviews into a genuine common good, informed by the diverse perspectives and contributions of all. This transformation ensures that education serves humanity, fostering a more equitable, inclusive, and sustainable future. As elucidated by Jeff Thompson, Mary Hayden, and others at the University of Bath, international education provides a robust framework for cultivating skills, attitudes, and knowledge that prepare students for meaningful and purposeful futures. The integration of these principles, further supported by the GM+IC framework I developed and the contributions of the Monash Intercultural Lab, demonstrates their universal applicability. The adoption of these principles by national schools enhances students' academic and professional prospects and enables them to lead fulfilling lives as empathetic and informed global citizens. In an era where connections transcend borders, this approach to education is not merely beneficial but essential for creating a better, more inclusive, and sustainable world. 国際教育の重要性は、ますます相互依存が進む現代社会で高まっています。バース大学のジェフ・トンプソンやメアリー・ヘイデンらの研究に基づき、国際教育は21世紀の複雑な課題に対処するために必要なスキル、態度、知識を学生に提供することを目指しています。この教育は、グローバル経済への積極的な参加を可能にし、有意義で影響力のある人生を送る基盤を築きます。 本ブログでは、「グローバル教育」の概念を私の研究と教育現場での経験から明確化し、伝統的な「国際教育」からの進化を提案します。グローバル教育は、国家間の競争やパートナーシップを超え、すべての国が互いの繁栄を支える持続可能な方法を優先する必要性を認識しています。この視点は、競争から協力へと焦点を移し、人類と自然界の福祉に貢献する教育を目指します。 グローバルな視点を育むため、批判的思考、協働、異文化間のコミュニケーション、柔軟性といったスキルが必要不可欠です。さらに、文化的リテラシーや自然との共存を重視したカリキュラムは、持続可能性や地球規模の課題解決に貢献します。この教育は、個人の成功だけでなく、全体の繁栄を目指す新しいパラダイムを提唱します。教育は、少数の国や視点に支配される消費財ではなく、多様な意見から構築される共通の財産であるべきです。 Image generated by OpenAI's DALL·E model, January 2025, based on user-provided descriptions of international education themes and global interconnectedness. Indentured Servitude, Chattel Slavery, and Forced Labour: A Complex Legacy
This exploration responds to claims that African slavery in the New World and indentured servitude were essentially equivalent. A particular focus of this blog is to address arguments on several internet platforms that equate the Irish experience in the New World with that of enslaved Africans. Such comparisons, often characterised by oversimplification or outright inaccuracy from both ends of the political spectrum, fail to capture the nuanced realities of these systems. A deeper dive into the historical context reveals significant distinctions which shaped the lives of those involved and the socio-economic structures of the time. Scholars like Thomas Sowell and Kenneth Morgan offer more balanced perspectives, recognising the interplay of economic, cultural, and political factors that drove forced labour systems in colonial history. The Transatlantic Slave Trade: Scale and Consequences The transatlantic slave trade forcibly removed approximately 12.5 million Africans between the 16th and 19th centuries, with around 10.7 million surviving the Middle Passage. This system of chattel slavery evolved to become hereditary and increasingly racialised, ensuring economic benefits for elites even as pressure to end the trade grew. The largest recipients of enslaved Africans were Brazil and the Caribbean, while North America received fewer but saw significant population growth through natural reproduction. Regions like West Africa and Central Africa bore the brunt of the trade, with Angola alone contributing over 4 million captives. Population declines in some areas reached 10-15%, destabilising societies and fostering cycles of violence. The cultural and demographic consequences remain profound. The Role and Decline of Indentured Servitude Indentured servitude, a precursor to widespread African slavery, involved individuals working fixed terms of 4-7 years in exchange for passage, sustenance, and shelter. Approximately 300,000–400,000 indentured servants, mainly from Europe, were sent to the Americas during the 17th and 18th centuries. The Irish, particularly during the Cromwellian conquest (1649–1653), were disproportionately affected, with tens of thousands forcibly deported to colonies such as Barbados and Montserrat. Many endured gruelling conditions, with high mortality rates due to overwork and disease. Although their servitude was temporary, they were often viewed as expendable labour. Treated as less valuable than enslaved individuals, indentured servants were subjected to conditions that, on a physiological level, frequently exceeded the brutality experienced by enslaved people. However, this distinction does not diminish the horrendous suffering endured by enslaved Africans, who were dehumanised as commodities within a hereditary system of oppression. By the late 17th century, African slavery replaced indentured servitude as the dominant labour system. Africans, enslaved for life and with their children inheriting their status, were seen as a more profitable workforce. Comparing Chattel Slavery and Indentured ServitudeWhile both systems exploited human labour, their differences are stark:
Per Capita Impact: Africa and Ireland The proportional impacts of these systems reveal key contrasts:
Asian Labour in the Americas Although not subjected to chattel slavery on the same scale, Asians were involved in coerced labour systems. The Manila Galleon Trade (1565–1815) transported Filipino and Southeast Asian labourers to Mexico and Spanish colonies. Portuguese and Dutch enterprises also enslaved South Asians, transporting them to Brazil and other territories. In the 19th century, indentured labour replaced slavery in many regions. Over 1.2 million Indians and 250,000 Chinese were transported to the Caribbean and South America under contracts resembling slavery in practice. These systems illustrate the global dimensions of colonial exploitation. Intersections with Islamic and Indian Slave Systems The Islamic and Indian systems of slavery add further complexity. The Islamic slave trade, spanning centuries, involved millions of displaced people from Sub-Saharan Africa, Central Asia, and the Caucasus to North Africa, the Middle East, and parts of Asia. Enslaved individuals served as soldiers, domestic workers, and labourers. In India, bonded labour tied to the caste system subjected individuals to hereditary servitude. Under British rule, millions of Indians became part of global indentured labour networks, replacing enslaved Africans in colonies like Trinidad and Mauritius. These systems reflect shared mechanisms of exploitation while highlighting regional differences. Reparations and Historical Memory The responses to historical injustices differ by context:
Reflections on Forced Labour Systems The histories of chattel slavery, indentured servitude, and coerced labour reveal a spectrum of exploitation that shaped the colonial world. African chattel slavery, unparalleled in scale and brutality, entrenched systemic inequalities. Yet, the suffering of Irish indentured servants and Asian labourers underscores the diverse forms of labour extraction. Understanding these systems requires a nuanced approach acknowledging their shared and distinct impacts. Recognising the global reach of exploitation and its enduring effects enables a more comprehensive view of history and its relevance to contemporary discussions on justice and reconciliation. Indentured Servitude, Chattel Slavery, and Forced Labour: A Complex Legacy 本ブログは、アフリカ系奴隷制度とアイルランド人の契約奉公を同一視する主張に応答するものです。16〜19世紀にかけて大西洋奴隷貿易で約1,250万人のアフリカ人が連行され、一方で契約奉公ではヨーロッパから約30〜40万人が新世界に送られました。アフリカ系奴隷制度は世襲化し人種化され、永続的な抑圧を制度化しましたが、契約奉公は一時的でありながら極めて過酷な条件下で行われました。この歴史を深く理解するには、それぞれの制度の共通点と相違点を認識し、搾取の全体像を明らかにすることが重要です。 |
James M. HatchInternational Educator who happens to be passionate about Chito Ryu Karate. Born in Ireland, educated in Canada, matured in Japan Archives
January 2025
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