Musings on Japanese and Ryukyu Budo
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Musings on Japanese and Ryukyu Budo
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An academic friend recently shared a video showcasing a karate kata performance purported to be a 900-year-old family tradition passed from China to Japan. The announcement accompanying the video was highly enthusiastic, highlighting the rarity and unique nature of the kata. From an aesthetic standpoint, the performance looked undeniably beautiful, even though only 2 minutes of the claimed 45-minute kata were shown. However, the whole story and its assertions need careful examination to prevent it from becoming another questionable claim within the martial arts community. The Connection Between Fujian Province and Okinawan Martial Arts The connection between Fujian Province (historically known as Fukien) in China and Okinawan martial arts is not just significant, it's a key to understanding the historical interplay between the two regions. This relationship, while not fully supporting claims of an unbroken 900-year lineage for a long kata within Okinawan karate, provides a rich context for exploring the known connections between Fujian and Okinawan martial arts and evaluating them within historical and practical frameworks. Historical Background: Fujian and Its Martial Arts Influence Fujian Province has long been recognised as a cradle for several influential Chinese martial arts styles, particularly those under the umbrella of Southern Chinese kung fu. The region is known for styles emphasising short, powerful movements, close-range fighting, and forms such as White Crane Kung Fu and Five Ancestors Fist (Wuzuquan). These styles are believed to have played a formative role in shaping the martial arts practices that later evolved in Okinawa. The Shaolin Temple in Fujian is also notable, distinct from its counterpart in Henan Province, for nurturing and spreading martial arts throughout the region. Fujian practitioners were known for their focus on efficiency, practical application, and adaptability, which resonated with the combat needs of practitioners in Okinawa. (NB: The entire story of the southern Shaolin temple may indeed be nothing more than myth and fantastical speculation) Okinawa's Absorption and Adaptation of Martial Arts Okinawa's geographic location made it a vital trading point, enabling the Ryukyu Kingdom to become an intermediary in East Asian trade, particularly during the 14th to 17th centuries. During this period, the influence of Chinese martial arts began to become more integrated into Okinawan practices. Okinawan martial artists often travelled to Fujian for training and brought back techniques, philosophies, and forms adapted to local conditions. The port city of Fuzhou in Fujian was primarily known for welcoming Okinawan emissaries and martial artists who sought to study under Chinese masters. This cross-cultural exchange contributed significantly to the creation of Okinawan karate as it incorporated elements of Chinese boxing (quan fa). One of the most well-documented influences is the integration of White Crane Kung Fu techniques into the development of karate styles such as Naha-te, which evolved into Goju-ryu and Uechi-ryu. These styles emphasise controlled breathing, circular movements, and a combination of hard and soft techniques characteristic of Southern Chinese martial arts. The influence of Fujian can still be seen today in using katas like Sanchin, a hallmark of Goju-ryu and Uechi-Ryu, and parallel forms practised in Southern China. Critical Analysis of Historical Dates and Dynasties The claim of a 900-year-old kata implies a timeline stretching back to the early 1100s. During this time, China was under the Song Dynasty (宋朝), specifically the Northern Song (北宋, 960–1127) and later transitioning to the Southern Song (南宋, 1127–1279). However, there is limited evidence of direct martial transmission from China to Okinawa during this period. The Song Dynasty was known for its military manuals and martial development. Still, scant documentation suggests that specific kata or detailed martial traditions were exported directly to Okinawa in an unbroken form. At this point, Okinawa was in the Gusuku Period (10th–14th centuries), characterised by local chieftain-led fortified settlements rather than a unified kingdom with solid external ties. The earliest significant interactions between China and Okinawa began in the 14th century with the Ming Dynasty (明朝, 1368–1644), well after the timeframe claimed by the kata's supposed origins. Assessing the Claim of a 900-Year-Old Kung Fu Kata While it is clear that the Fujian-Okinawa connection played a crucial role in the development of Okinawan karate, the claim of an unbroken 900-year lineage involving a specific 45-minute kata does not align with historical records or known practices.
Conclusion The known connections between Fujian Province and Okinawan martial arts are undeniable and have significantly influenced the formation of karate. However, the claim of an unbroken 900-year-old, 45-minute kung-fu kata existing within a modern karate lineage does not align with historical, cultural, or practical realities. While elements of Fujianese martial arts, such as White Crane and other Southern styles, were adapted into Okinawan systems, preserving such a long and unchanged form over nearly a millennium is highly implausible. The evolution of martial arts in both regions involved continuous change, adaptation, and practical application, making the idea of a singular, lengthy kata surviving intact across centuries highly questionable. Without substantial historical documentation or evidence supporting the existence of this kata, the claim is more likely a modern construct or legend rather than a factual piece of martial arts history. 学術的な友人が最近、中国から日本へと伝わったとされる900年前の家伝の空手の型のパフォーマンス映像を共有しました。映像に添えられた発表は非常に熱心で、その型の希少性と独自性を強調していました。美的観点から見ても、そのパフォーマンスは非常に美しく見えましたが、45分に及ぶとされる型のうちの2分しか見られませんでした。この話と主張は、武術界でまた新たな疑わしい主張となる前に慎重に検証される必要があります。 福建省(歴史的には福建)と沖縄の武術の関係は非常に重要で、両地域間の歴史的な交流を理解する鍵です。しかし、この関係は、沖縄空手内の長い型の900年にわたる継承を裏付けるには不十分です。福建省は南派中国拳法の発祥地であり、短く力強い動きと近接戦闘を特徴とする白鶴拳や五祖拳などのスタイルで知られています。 沖縄の武術家たちは福建で訓練を受け、その技術や思想を持ち帰り、地元に適応させました。これらの影響が沖縄空手の発展に重要な役割を果たしましたが、900年にわたる連続した45分の型の存在は、歴史的な証拠には一致しません。
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Traditional martial arts in Japan and China exhibit a layered psychology of dependency, deeply embedded in historical, psychological, cultural, and economic factors. While these arts offer structured paths towards self-mastery, they have often evolved into systems where loyalty to authority can overshadow individual growth. This dependency is frequently centred on the master figure, whose charisma, authority, and perceived esoteric knowledge draw practitioners from diverse backgrounds into long-term devotion relationships. This article explores these dimensions of dependency and examines how they may shape or limit practitioners' mental and physical development. Historical Context and Hierarchical Influence Traditional Japanese and Chinese martial arts systems, such as budo and wushu, trace their origins to feudal societies where hierarchical structures were essential for social order. Japanese budo, practised by the samurai class, and Chinese gongfu, which emerged from monastic and martial traditions, reinforced loyalty and respect for authority. Students were encouraged to follow their sensei or master without question, as questioning could jeopardise the master's authority, group harmony, and, historically, survival. This idea of absolute loyalty remains deeply rooted within many martial traditions, cultivating a view of the master as the ultimate authority in knowledge and practice. However, this idealised loyalty often contrasts with the historical reality of marital relationships. Instances of students who defied, surpassed, or even confronted their masters reveal that martial mastery frequently demanded personal resilience and, at times, rebellion. For example, in the Shaolin Temple tradition, Zhang Sanfeng, credited with founding Taiji, is said to have diverged from Shaolin techniques to create a new internal style focused on qi (internal energy) rather than sheer physical force. By innovating beyond his teachers' instructions, Zhang exemplified how martial mastery sometimes required moving beyond established traditions. These historical examples serve to enlighten us about the complexity of master-student relationships in martial arts. Another case is the renowned Japanese swordsman Miyamoto Musashi, who chose a path of self-guided exploration rather than allegiance to a single school. Developing his style, Niten Ichi-ryu, Musashi frequently defied conventions, defeating masters from established schools across Japan. His journey underscores the notion that self-reliance and independent exploration can lead to genuine mastery, challenging the traditional expectation of unquestioning loyalty. In some cases, students went as far as to confront or even kill their masters. During Japan's Edo period, Asaoka Chikaranosuke, a student of kyujutsu (archery), killed his teacher, Kiyonaga Matabei, after experiencing oppression at the master's hands. Such acts, seen as justified within the honour-bound context of the time, illustrate the limits of loyalty and reveal the underlying tensions in the master-student relationship. These examples suggest a more nuanced historical perspective, where martial mastery involved skill development and personal autonomy that sometimes required challenging or departing from one's master. Psychological Dependency and Guru Dynamics The dependency that emerges in martial arts settings mirrors "guru dynamics," where students view the master as a singular source of knowledge and insight. This dynamic transcends cultural boundaries, as Aoyagi and Sakurai (2011) demonstrated in their cross-cultural study, revealing that martial arts practitioners of various backgrounds often develop a dependency on their instructors. Here, the master is idealised as the gatekeeper of rare knowledge, and limited access to their teaching—often through exclusive seminars or events—reinforces this perception. Additionally, martial arts schools may foster the belief that the master holds unique powers or "secret" knowledge. These claims persist despite significant evidence challenging their authenticity, as many "esoteric" techniques hinge on basic anatomical principles accessible to any dedicated student. By portraying such skills as mystical, masters can cultivate a sense of dependency, whereby students feel that only prolonged guidance can unlock these insights. Cultural Constructs and the Influence of Amae The Japanese concept of amae (a "childlike dependency" on authority) encapsulates how students form attachments to authority within martial arts. This social dynamic, central to Japanese psychology, describes a need for approval that reinforces deference to authority. Martial arts schools strengthen this dependency through rituals, hierarchies, and expectations of loyalty. Aoyagi & Sakurai (2011) found that even international students internalise this hierarchical dependency, conforming to the cultural expectations of harmony and loyalty within the dojo. While supportive of group identity, such dependency may constrain independent growth, reinforcing an attachment to the dojo over individual development. Economic Motivations: Membership Versus Mastery The economic framework of modern dojos often supports dependency by prioritising retention over skill mastery. In Fighting Sports, Rinehart (1996) observed how belt and rank systems can function as financial commitments, subtly encouraging students to remain involved through incremental certifications. Each level, requiring further investment in fees and time, creates a structure that binds students to the dojo. This insight into the financial dynamics of martial arts can help us understand the role of economic factors in fostering dependency. Additionally, the opportunity to train directly under the master is often rare, creating a sense of scarcity around the master's teaching. This scarcity compels students to remain within the system, hoping eventually to attain more access. In this way, financial dependency and devotion to the dojo become intertwined, with the ultimate promise of "secret" or advanced knowledge remaining perpetually out of reach. Cult of Personality and the Master Figure In many martial arts schools, dependency on the master evolves into a "cult of personality," where the instructor is perceived as possessing near-mystical qualities. In their studies on charismatic leadership, Conger & Kanungo (1998) demonstrated that followers in hierarchical systems often idealise their leaders. Martial arts masters may capitalise on this by nurturing a persona possessing unique or supernatural knowledge. Frequently, techniques that involve physiological principles, such as joint manipulation or timing, are presented as "secretive," encouraging the belief that only the master can execute them fully. These claims, often unsubstantiated compared to basic physiological knowledge, contribute to a sense of mystique that binds students to the dojo and its leader. Tajfel & Turner's Social Identity Theory illustrates how loyalty to a group fosters acceptance of the master's claims, often without critical evaluation, further entrenching dependency. Erosion of Practical Efficacy and Mental Well-Being The emphasis on loyalty and dependency over skill mastery can ultimately inhibit personal and mental growth. Studies by Kim & Park (2003) suggest that dependency-oriented systems in martial arts often impede students' resilience, as they focus on pleasing the master rather than cultivating self-confidence and autonomy. Such dependency limits the traditional goals of martial arts, leaving students more concerned with maintaining their dojo relationships than developing true martial efficacy. By fostering critical engagement, we can empower practitioners to navigate the complex dynamics of dependency in traditional martial arts and truly master their craft.Shifting martial arts practices from dependency to autonomy involves a cultural change within dojos. Fostering shoshin (beginner's mind), a mindset that values open inquiry and self-reflection, can support students in challenging assumptions and evaluating teachings independently. Emphasising skills, resilience, and critical engagement allow martial arts to progress from devotion-based systems to disciplines focused on genuine self-mastery and mental well-being. ConclusionThe understanding of dependency in martial arts aligns closely with modern educational theory, where autonomy, critical engagement, and self-assessment are essential to genuine learning and mastery. The works of Piaget and Vygotsky reveal that active engagement and exploration are crucial for developing an authentic understanding of any discipline. Constructivist theories reinforce that learning is not passive but is most effective when individuals adapt and critically engage with the material, building on prior knowledge. In martial arts, dependency structures often work against these principles by encouraging conformity rather than exploration. Educational theorist John Dewey advocated for learning environments that foster independence and challenge passive adherence to authority. Dewey's ideas suggest that when practised with an emphasis on personal agency, martial arts can transform into authentic learning experiences that cultivate resilience, adaptability, and self-confidence. Hattie's (2008) research on effective teaching highlights the importance of student agency, goal-setting, and self-reflection as critical elements of successful learning. These principles also apply to martial arts: by enabling students to think critically and assess teachings independently, dojos can foster environments where true mastery flourishes. Thus, martial arts practitioners should remain mindful of situations where dependency on an inner circle limits growth. Where access to exclusive knowledge is selectively withheld or where the legitimacy of the master is ambiguous, practitioners may find their development hindered by misplaced loyalty. Recognising these dynamics, martial arts can evolve from systems of dependency to practices that uphold tradition while fostering critical thinking, self-mastery, and lifelong resilience. 日本や中国の伝統武道には、歴史的、心理的、文化的、経済的な要因が絡み合った依存の心理が深く根付いています。これらの武道は自己鍛錬の道を提供していますが、師範への忠誠やカリスマ性が個人の成長を制限する要因ともなり得ます。依存は多くの場合、師範の権威や秘伝の知識への信仰によって強化され、修行者の精神的および肉体的な発展に影響を与えます。成功した大組織のリーダーが、権力を強引に握り続けることは、心理的な脆弱さと自己愛に近い悲しい兆候であり、歴史が示すように、そのような指導者が亡くなった後、組織は崩壊し、最終的には過去の使い捨ての存在として忘れ去られていく運命にあります。 Bibliographic Citation: Nakajima, T. (2018). Japanese Martial Arts and the Sublimation of Violence: An Ethnographic Study of Shinkage-ryu. Martial Arts Studies, Issue 6, pp. 62-74. DOI: 10.18573/mas.68. Summary of Findings and AssertionsNakajima’s article, Japanese Martial Arts and the Sublimation of Violence, presents a unique and insightful ethnographic study of the Shinkage-ryu school of Japanese martial arts. His exploration of the central premise that martial arts serve not only as techniques for combat but also as methods for sublimating or transforming violence, while addressing broader philosophical and historical questions, is a perspective that will surely engage and intrigue our academic peers and researchers. The study focuses on the role of kata (pre-arranged forms) in turning violent actions into disciplined, constructive practices. Nakajima proposes that Shinkage-ryu offers a unique opportunity to observe how the transformation of violence is systematically taught through martial training. The use of kata is particularly emphasised as a critical mechanism for instilling in practitioners the ability to respond to violence in a controlled and non-lethal manner. According to Nakajima, this focus on sublimating violence contrasts with the common perception of martial arts as combat techniques aimed solely at defeating opponents. Through over 12 years of fieldwork in a Shinkage-ryu dojo, Nakajima observed that students are taught to ‘move in under the sword,’ not as a physical tactic alone, but as a way to negate violence entirely. The article asserts that classical Japanese martial arts do not merely prepare practitioners for physical confrontations but cultivate a mindset that neutralises violence through understanding and mastery of movement. The concept of marobashi, or the moment when violence is sublimated, is crucial to this study. Marobashi refers to the instant when, through the correct application of kata, the practitioner’s sword avoids contact with the opponent’s body, demonstrating a victory without the need to cause harm. This notion challenges the common assumption that martial arts must lead to the physical domination of one’s opponent. Situating the Article within the FieldNakajima’s work contributes significantly to martial arts studies by addressing gaps in the existing literature concerning classical martial arts. Much of the scholarship on Japanese martial arts has historically concentrated on modern disciplines such as judo and kendo, both of which became part of Japan’s educational curriculum after the Second World War. These arts are often studied through the lens of sportification, focusing on competitive elements and physical education. Nakajima’s ethnographic approach, however, offers a fresh perspective by examining classical martial traditions that have been mainly overlooked in academic research. Shinkage-ryu, unlike judo and kendo, has retained its classical form, and its pedagogical methods have not been widely adapted to the sport or educational arenas. This distinction makes Nakajima’s study particularly valuable, highlighting the philosophical and ethical dimensions of martial arts that remain primarily hidden within traditional dojo settings. Furthermore, the article engages with interdisciplinary frameworks, drawing on anthropology, philosophy, and history to deepen the analysis of how martial arts are not simply about violence but about controlling, managing, and ultimately sublimating it. This approach challenges more mechanistic interpretations of martial arts that focus solely on physical techniques, instead presenting martial arts as practices deeply intertwined with ethical and philosophical training. Assessing its Contribution to the FieldNakajima’s ethnographic study of Shinkage-ryu is a valuable addition to the growing body of literature on the deeper philosophical aspects of martial arts. While previous studies have explored the historical evolution of martial arts, Nakajima's work stands out by focusing on the experience of training in a classical school, offering valuable insights into the psychological and ethical dimensions of martial arts practice. His work not only enriches our understanding of Shinkage-ryu but also provides a unique perspective on the broader field of martial arts studies. The article is a detailed exploration of kata and marobashi, a vital contribution. Nakajima illustrates that kata are not merely choreographed movements but are intended to guide practitioners towards moments of realisation where violence is transcended. This shift from seeing martial arts as a means to an end—combat or self-defence—towards understanding them as processes for self-reflection and moral growth is a notable element of the study. Nakajima also raises important questions about the role of martial arts in modern society. In the post-war period, martial arts were introduced into Japan’s school curriculum primarily to emphasise physical education and competition. Nakajima’s work suggests that this approach may have overlooked the more profound objectives of martial arts training, such as the development of moral virtues and the cultivation of a nonviolent ethos. His findings could potentially influence the modern practice of martial arts, encouraging a shift towards a more holistic approach that incorporates these deeper objectives. The article’s focus on Shinkage-ryu, a lesser-known classical school, enhances the discussion by highlighting the diversity within Japanese martial arts traditions. It challenges the dominant narrative that focuses on modern, sport-oriented martial arts, drawing attention to the rich philosophical heritage of classical martial arts, which have been preserved for centuries yet remain under-explored in contemporary scholarship. Future ConsiderationsNakajima’s study opens several exciting pathways for further research. One potential area of exploration is a comparative study of how different classical martial arts schools, such as Niten Ichi-ryu or Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto-ryu, approach the concept of sublimating violence. Such studies could provide a broader understanding of how various schools interpret violence and its transformation through martial practice, sparking new ideas and motivating further exploration. Further ethnographic studies could also examine how modern practitioners of classical martial arts integrate these philosophical teachings into their daily lives. How do the ethical lessons learned in the dojo influence practitioners outside the training hall? This area could provide valuable insights into the relevance of martial arts philosophy in contemporary society. Additionally, Nakajima’s emphasis on marobashi raises essential questions about how practitioners interpret and apply such abstract concepts in practice. Future research could investigate how different instructors across Japan teach these ideas and whether there is variation in how they are understood and applied. ConclusionTetsuya Nakajima’s Japanese Martial Arts and the Sublimation of Violence is a significant contribution to the study of martial arts. His work challenges traditional views of martial arts, offering a unique perspective on the philosophical underpinnings of classical Japanese martial traditions. Through his detailed ethnographic study of Shinkage-ryu, Nakajima demonstrates that martial arts are not solely about fighting but about learning to transcend violence through disciplined practice and moral cultivation. This challenging of traditional views will surely inspire and enlighten our academic peers and researchers, providing a foundation for future research into these ancient practices' ethical and philosophical dimensions. 研究の要約と主張中島哲哉の論文「日本の武道と暴力の昇華」は、武道の技術が単なる戦闘の手段ではなく、暴力を昇華・変換するための方法でもあるという独自かつ洞察に富んだ民族誌的研究です。この研究は、幅広い哲学的および歴史的な問題に取り組みながら、型(事前に決められた動作)が暴力的な行動を規律ある建設的な実践に変える役割に焦点を当てています。 中島は、神影流が、武道訓練を通じて暴力を体系的にどのように昇華するかを観察するためのユニークな機会を提供していると提案しています。特に型の使用が、暴力に対して制御された非致死的な方法で反応する能力を修練者に植え付ける重要なメカニズムとして強調されています。中島によれば、この暴力の昇華に焦点を当てることは、武道が対戦相手を打ち負かすための戦闘技術に過ぎないという一般的な認識とは対照的です。神影流道場で12年以上にわたって行われたフィールドワークを通じて、中島は、弟子たちが「刀の下に入り込む」ことを教えられている様子を観察しましたが、これは単なる物理的な戦術ではなく、暴力を完全に無効化する方法として教えられていました。 論文は、日本の古典的な武道が単なる物理的な対決の準備をするだけでなく、動作の理解と習得を通じて暴力を中和する心構えを育むものであると主張しています。この研究において重要な概念である円橋は、型の正しい応用によって修練者の刀が相手の体に触れることなく、勝利を示す瞬間を指します。この概念は、武道が必ずしも相手の身体的な支配に至るべきだという一般的な仮定に異議を唱えています。 中島の研究は、武道に関する既存の文献の欠点に取り組むことで、武道研究分野に大きく貢献しています。日本の武道に関する学術的な研究の多くは、歴史的に柔道や剣道といった近代的な武道に集中してきましたが、これらは第二次世界大戦後に日本の教育課程に取り入れられました。これらの武道は、競技要素や体育的な観点で研究されることが多いです。 一方で、中島の民族誌的アプローチは、これまで学術研究でほとんど見過ごされてきた古典的な武道伝統を掘り下げる新たな視点を提供しています。神影流は、柔道や剣道とは異なり、古典的な形を維持しており、その教育法は競技や教育の場に広く適応されていません。この違いが中島の研究を特に貴重なものにしており、伝統的な道場環境の中で隠れている武道の哲学的および倫理的な側面に光を当てています。 さらに、論文は人類学、哲学、歴史学などの学際的な枠組みを活用して、武道が単なる暴力に関するものではなく、暴力を制御し、管理し、最終的に昇華することに関するものであるという分析を深めています。このアプローチは、物理的な技術に焦点を当てた機械的な解釈に挑戦し、武道を倫理的・哲学的な訓練と深く結びついた実践として提示しています。 Oct. 24, 2024 - The Pitfalls of Voluntourism: Identifying a Harmful Mindset and Its Consequences.10/24/2024 In an era of global interconnectedness, the appeal of volunteering abroad has surged, especially among students from affluent nations seeking meaningful experiences in developing countries. These opportunities, often marketed as a means to 'give back' and contribute to global development, also promise personal growth and cultural immersion. However, beneath this appealing surface lies a problematic phenomenon known as voluntourism. This practice, which merges volunteerism with tourism, often leads to short-term, superficial engagement with needy communities. When approached with the wrong mindset, the consequences of this practice can be damaging, both for the volunteers and the communities they aim to assist.
Identifying the Mindset of a Voluntourist A volunteer's voluntourists approach is often characterised by superficial engagement. Rather than understanding the deeper sociocultural and economic challenges faced by the communities they visit, volunteers tend to oversimplify complex issues. This lack of understanding often results in a "saviour" mentality, where the volunteers see themselves as heroes saving less fortunate individuals, perpetuating harmful stereotypes. According to Guttentag (2009), voluntourism can reinforce the notion that developing nations are helpless and require continuous aid from the wealthier Global North. Another key aspect of the voluntourist mindset is its self-serving nature. Participants are often motivated by the desire to enhance their CVs, fulfil university admission requirements, or meet CAS (Creativity, Activity, Service) standards under programs like the International Baccalaureate. McGehee (2012) found that voluntourists are often more concerned with personal fulfilment than with creating sustainable change in the communities they serve. Simpson (2004) echoes this sentiment, highlighting that many participants are driven by self-gratification and the allure of adventure rather than genuine concern for local development The short-term nature of these projects exacerbates the issue. Voluntourists often spend only a few weeks in their host communities, which limits their ability to form meaningful connections or understand the root causes of poverty. As Sin (2010) argues, short-term volunteering often fails to produce sustainable outcomes; instead, it offers volunteers a fleeting sense of accomplishment without addressing long-term needs. The Consequences of Voluntourism The consequences of voluntourism are far-reaching. One of the most critical issues is the reinforcement of dependency. By treating communities in developing countries as perpetual recipients of aid, voluntourism fosters a mindset of dependency, stifling local innovation and leadership. Lough (2010) notes that voluntourism can inadvertently disempower local communities by positioning foreign volunteers as the primary drivers of change rather than empowering local stakeholders to take control of their development. Furthermore, voluntourism can have a detrimental effect on local economies. Instead of hiring skilled local workers, voluntourism projects often bring in unskilled volunteers to carry out tasks such as building schools or infrastructure. Guttentag (2009) emphasises that while these activities may seem beneficial, they can undermine local economies by diverting potential employment opportunities away from residents. Moreover, the temporary nature of these projects often results in incomplete or poorly executed work, leaving communities with substandard facilities. Another significant consequence is the emotional toll on local communities, particularly children. Reas (2015) highlights how voluntourism, especially in orphanages, can create cycles of attachment and abandonment, causing emotional instability for vulnerable children. The constant influx and subsequent departure of volunteers can be emotionally damaging, leaving behind feelings of loss and instability. Voluntourism can also perpetuate a colonial mindset, wherein volunteers from wealthier nations view themselves as saviours, reinforcing historical power imbalances between the Global North and South. Simpson (2004) critiques this dynamic, arguing that voluntourism often prioritises the volunteers' experiences over the needs and dignity of the host communities. By framing the narrative around the volunteer's personal growth rather than the community's long-term development, voluntourism risks reinforcing the inequalities it seeks to address. Moving Beyond Voluntourism Promoting sustainable, community-led development is crucial to mitigating the negative consequences of voluntourism. Instead of sending short-term volunteers, organisations should focus on empowering local communities to identify and solve their challenges. The African Development Bank (AfDB) highlights the importance of regional leadership in development projects, ensuring that initiatives are driven by local needs and are sustainable in the long term. Furthermore, critical reflection is essential for students embarking on these trips. Volunteers must be encouraged to approach their experiences with humility, respect, and a willingness to learn from the communities they visit rather than assuming a role of superiority. Volunteering abroad can become a meaningful and respectful exchange by shifting the focus from personal gain to mutual learning and collaboration. In conclusion, while the intentions behind voluntourism may be noble, the reality often falls short of its promises. The mindset of self-gratification, combined with the short-term nature of these projects, can lead to significant negative consequences for host communities. By recognising the pitfalls of voluntourism and promoting sustainable, community-driven development, volunteers and the communities they serve can benefit from a more equitable and impactful form of engagement. ボランティアと観光を組み合わせた「ボランツーリズム」は、近年、特に裕福な国の学生たちの間で人気が高まっています。これは発展途上国での活動を通じて「恩返し」を行い、個人的な成長や文化体験を得ることを目的としていますが、実際には短期的で表面的な関わりにとどまり、訪問するコミュニティに悪影響を与えることが多いです。 ボランツーリストは、地域の社会経済的な課題を深く理解せず、単純化しがちです。その結果、自己満足や履歴書のために活動に参加する傾向があり、真の持続可能な変化をもたらすことは少ないです。このような活動は、地域社会の自立を阻害し、依存心を強め、地域経済に悪影響を及ぼす可能性があります。また、感情的な負担や、植民地主義的な思考を助長する危険性もあります。 持続可能で地域主導の発展を促進することが、ボランツーリズムの負の側面を軽減するために重要です。 Works Cited: African Development Bank (AfDB) (2020). Promoting community-led development. Retrieved from www.afdb.org Guttentag, D. A. (2009). The possible negative impacts of volunteer tourism. International Journal of Tourism Research, 11(6), 537-551. Lough, B. J. (2010). International volunteerism in the developing world: A comparative analysis of international and local volunteers. Center for Social Development, Washington University. McGehee, N. G. (2012). Oppression, emancipation, and volunteer tourism: Research propositions. Annals of Tourism Research, 39(1), 84-107. Raymond, E. M., & Hall, C. M. (2008). The development of cross-cultural (mis)understanding through volunteer tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16(5), 530-543. Reas, J. (2015). Orphanage tourism in Cambodia: When residential care centres become tourist attractions. Pacific Affairs, 88(1), 125-150. Simpson, K. (2004). ‘Doing development’: The gap year, volunteer-tourists, and a popular practice of development. Journal of International Development, 16(5), 681-692. Sin, H. L. (2010). Who are we responsible to? Locals' tales of volunteer tourism. Geoforum, 41(6), 983-992. Plato's Allegory of the Cave, found in Book VII of The Republic, written around 380 BCE, offers a timeless reflection on the human tendency to resist change and challenge. In the allegory, prisoners are chained inside a cave, only able to see shadows on the wall—shadows they mistake for reality. When one prisoner escapes and experiences the real world, he realises the shadows are mere illusions. However, he faces hostility and ridicule upon returning to the cave to share his newfound knowledge. Plato goes so far as to suggest that the prisoners would not only reject the truth but, if the freed prisoner persisted in enlightening them, they would kill him rather than accept the discomfort of a new reality. This allegory resonates profoundly with my teaching experience in Japan, a culture that, while rich in tradition and excellence, can often prioritise criticism over celebrating achievements. The rigidity of conventions, particularly the reluctance to deviate from established norms, creates an environment where risk-taking is discouraged. For instance, in the classroom, students often hesitate to ask questions or propose new ideas for fear of being criticised or making a mistake. In professional settings, employees may avoid taking on challenging projects or suggesting innovative solutions due to the potential for failure and the criticism that may follow. Much like the prisoners in the cave, many students and professionals here avoid the light of new possibilities, driven by a fear of failure and the criticism that frequently accompanies it. Japanese culture, with its strong emphasis on collectivism and social harmony, has many strengths in maintaining order and respect. However, this adherence to conformity can stifle individual growth, particularly in contexts requiring exploration, experimentation, and the inevitable failures accompanying such processes. In education, for instance, it is common for feedback to focus more on where students have not met expectations rather than acknowledging where they have succeeded. Minor shortcomings are amplified, and when students set personal or academic goals but fall slightly short, the focus is often placed on those failures rather than recognising the effort and progress achieved in other areas. This narrow focus on faults, rather than a balanced view that celebrates accomplishments, fosters an atmosphere where failure is disproportionately emphasised and success is taken for granted. As a teacher, I have frequently experienced the frustration of asking questions in class only to be met with silence. Fearing ridicule from their peers or believing it is solely my responsibility to educate them, students hesitate to engage. They often act as passive recipients of knowledge rather than active participants in their learning. This reluctance to take intellectual risks stems from a more profound cultural issue, where making mistakes must be avoided at all costs. The classroom environment thus becomes a place of passivity rather than a space for creativity and intellectual exploration. On a personal level, I have encountered similar frustrations. Despite investing significant emotional energy and effort into supporting someone through a difficult period, the feedback I received was solely focused on an expectation I had not met. What I perceived as a minor shortcoming overshadowed the broader context of care and support I had provided. This narrow lens, which prioritises shortcomings over what I believe to be a more holistic understanding of one's contributions, mirrors the cultural dynamics I see in education and professional life. It is a pattern of emphasising failure, often at the expense of acknowledging and celebrating effort and achievement. It is something that dooms friendships, relationships, and event departments of connection. If we cannot fail in these arenas, they will stifle and die. This dynamic is also evident in Budo, where the pursuit of perfection and precision is paramount. Traditionally, Budo teaches perseverance, resilience, and learning through failure. However, in modern practice, the focus on avoiding mistakes has frequently overshadowed these core principles. Students often feel burdened by the fear of criticism, which has contributed to a decline in the interest of Japanese youth in practising martial arts. The relentless pursuit of perfection and the fear of making errors detract from the true essence of Budo, which is about growth through continuous effort and overcoming challenges. This cultural tendency to highlight failure over success creates an environment of hesitation. People are less likely to take risks or try new approaches for fear of the negative feedback that may follow. In contrast, many intercultural competency frameworks stress the importance of learning through experience, including failure. Encouraging students to feel safe when taking risks and learning from their mistakes fosters creativity, innovation, and personal development. Yet, this approach often struggles to gain traction in a culture that places high value on avoiding errors. It's crucial to stress the importance of a balanced view of success and failure to foster a more positive learning environment, where students feel empowered to take risks and learn from their experiences, knowing that both success and failure are integral parts of their growth journey. Reflecting on my role as a teacher and researcher, it becomes increasingly clear that a balance must be struck between preserving cultural values and fostering an environment encouraging risk-taking. Japan has long been admired for its discipline, precision, and excellence. However, in today's rapidly changing world, there is a growing need to cultivate spaces where exploration and failure are seen as vital components of the learning process. This is equally important in both educational and professional settings, as well as in personal growth. The need for this balance is urgent, and it is a call to action for all of us to rethink our approach to success and failure, understanding that both are necessary for growth and innovation. Plato's allegory reminds us that growth can be uncomfortable, and those striving to see beyond convention's shadows often face resistance. In the allegory, the other prisoners go so far as to threaten to kill the one who tries to show them the light, so deeply entrenched is their attachment to the familiar shadows. As educators, we must guide students towards the light—encouraging them to take risks, make mistakes, and learn through their experiences. By shifting the focus from criticism to a more balanced recognition of both success and failure, we can help students—and society as a whole—embrace the value of personal growth and risk-taking. This commitment to personal development is at the heart of our mission as educators and cultural critics, and it is a commitment that we must uphold in the face of resistance, knowing that we have the power to shape a more positive learning environment. However, the continual focus on what has not been achieved rather than what has, has become a source of profound frustration for me. This frustration extends beyond the classroom and professional spheres and into personal relationships, where the emphasis on shortcomings stifles genuine connection. The joy and support I have offered others are too often overlooked in favour of highlighting what I perceive as minor failings—failings that could be more compassionately understood if viewed through a broader lens. This relentless focus on the negative has become a significant reason why I now look forward to leaving Japan to free myself from the cultural limitations that constrain actions and personal relationships. The refusal to celebrate achievement and growth over minor imperfections has led me to question the value of remaining in an environment where such a narrow focus on failure constantly undermines growth potential. Sadly, Japan and I no longer fit each other like a hand and glove. プラトンの「洞窟の比喩」は、紀元前380年頃に執筆された『国家』第7巻に記されています。この比喩は、人間が変化や挑戦に対してどれほど抵抗するかを永遠のテーマとして表現しています。比喩の中では、囚人たちが洞窟の中で鎖に繋がれ、壁に映る影しか見られず、その影を現実だと信じています。一人の囚人が逃げ出し、外の世界を体験することで、影が単なる幻影に過ぎないことに気づきます。しかし、その新しい知識を洞窟の中に戻って伝えようとすると、他の囚人たちから敵意や嘲笑を受けます。プラトンは、囚人たちが真実を拒むだけでなく、その解放された囚人が啓蒙を続けようとすれば、彼を殺してしまうだろうとまで示唆しています。新しい現実を受け入れる不快感に耐えられないからです。 この比喩は、日本での私の教育経験と深く共鳴します。日本は伝統と卓越性に富んだ文化ですが、成果を称賛するよりも批判を優先することがよくあります。特に既存の規範から逸脱することに対する抵抗が強いため、リスクを取ることが避けられる環境が作り出されています。例えば、教室では、生徒が質問をしたり、新しいアイデアを提案したりすることを躊躇することが多く、批判されたり、間違いを犯したりすることへの恐れからです。職場でも、従業員が挑戦的なプロジェクトを引き受けたり、革新的な解決策を提案したりすることを避ける傾向があります。それは、失敗やその後に続く批判を恐れてのことです。洞窟の囚人たちと同じように、多くの学生や専門家が失敗とその伴う批判を恐れて新しい可能性の光を避ける傾向にあります。 日本文化は、集団主義と社会的調和を重んじる強い傾向を持っています。この価値観は、秩序と尊重を維持する上で多くの利点がありますが、個人の成長を阻害することもあります。特に、探求や実験、そしてそれに伴う失敗が求められる状況では、成長が難しくなります。例えば、教育の現場では、生徒が達成できなかった部分に焦点を当てがちで、成功した部分を認めることが少ない傾向があります。 些細な欠点が大きく取り上げられ、目標に到達しなかった場合、その失敗に焦点が当てられ、他の分野で達成された努力や進歩は見過ごされがちです。このように欠点に焦点を当てる狭い視点は、成功を称賛するバランスの取れた見方を妨げ、失敗が過度に強調され、成功が当然視される雰囲気を醸成します。 教員として、私は教室で質問を投げかけても沈黙で返されることが多々あります。生徒たちは同級生から嘲笑されることを恐れ、また、教育は教師の責任であると考え、自分たちが積極的に学習に参加することを躊躇しているようです。この知的リスクを取ることへの不安は、間違いを避けることが最優先とされる深い文化的問題に根ざしています。その結果、教室は創造性や知的探求の場ではなく、受動的な環境となってしまいます。 個人的な面でも、同様のフラストレーションを感じています。困難な時期に誰かをサポートするために大きな感情的エネルギーと労力を注いだにもかかわらず、私が受け取ったフィードバックは、私が達成できなかった期待に対するものだけでした。私が小さな欠点だと感じたことが、私が提供したケアやサポートの全体像を覆い隠してしまいました。このような欠点に焦点を当てる狭い視点は、教育や職業生活における文化的なダイナミクスを反映しています。失敗を強調する傾向があり、努力や成果を称賛することが少ないのです。このような失敗の強調は、友情や人間関係を危機に追いやり、信頼関係の構築を阻害します。 同様の動態は武道の世界にも見られます。武道は、完璧さと精度の追求が重要視されますが、伝統的には、忍耐力、回復力、そして失敗から学ぶことが教えられてきました。しかし、現代の武道では、失敗を避けることに重点が置かれ、これらの基本原則がしばしば見過ごされています。生徒たちは批判への恐れから重圧を感じており、このことが日本の若者が武道を敬遠する一因となっています。完璧さを追求するあまり、失敗を恐れることが、武道の本来の目的である、継続的な努力と挑戦の克服を通じた成長を妨げています。 このような失敗を強調する文化的傾向は、ためらいを生む環境を作り出しています。人々は、ネガティブなフィードバックを恐れて、リスクを取ったり、新しいアプローチを試みたりすることを避ける傾向があります。これに対して、多くの異文化間能力の枠組みでは、失敗も含めた経験から学ぶことの重要性が強調されています。生徒がリスクを取ることに対して安心感を持ち、失敗から学べるようにすることで、創造性や革新性、個人の成長が促進されます。しかし、このアプローチは、失敗を避けることが高く評価される文化では浸透しにくいのが現実です。 私が教師や研究者としての役割を振り返ると、文化的価値観を守りながら、リスクを取ることを奨励する環境を作ることの重要性がますます明確になってきます。日本は長い間、その規律、精度、そして卓越性で称賛されてきましたが、今日の急速に変化する世界では、探求と失敗が学習プロセスの重要な要素として認識される空間を育む必要があります。これは、教育的および職業的な場面だけでなく、個人的な成長においても同様に重要です。このバランスを取ることの緊急性が高まっており、成功と失敗の両方が成長と革新のために必要であることを理解し、成功の定義を見直す時が来ています。 プラトンの比喩は、成長が時には不快であり、影に縛られた人々はしばしばその影を越えようとする人に抵抗することを思い起こさせます。比喩の中で、他の囚人たちは、影を超えた新しい現実を示そうとする者を殺すまでに至ることが示唆されています。教師として、私たちは生徒を光の方向に導き、リスクを取り、失敗し、その経験から学ぶことを奨励する責任があります。批判から成功と失敗の両方を認識するバランスの取れた見方に焦点を移すことで、個人の成長とリスクを取ることの価値を社会全体が受け入れられるようにすることができます。このような個人の発展への取り組みは、私たち教育者や文化批評家の使命の中心にあり、この使命を貫くことで、よりポジティブな学習環境を形作る力があるのです。 しかし、達成されなかったことに焦点を当てる一方で、達成されたことを無視する傾向は、私にとって深いフラストレーションの源となっています。このフラストレーションは、教室や職業生活の範囲を超え、個人的な関係にも及んでいます。欠点に焦点を当てることで、真のつながりが阻害されるのです。私が他者に提供してきた喜びやサポートは、しばしば些細な失敗を指摘するために見過ごされがちです。これらの失敗は、より広い視点で見れば、より理解され、受け入れられるべきものです。このようなネガティブな側面への過度な焦点は、私が日本を去ることを望む大きな理由の一つとなっています。 |
James M. HatchInternational Educator who happens to be passionate about Chito Ryu Karate. Born in Ireland, educated in Canada, matured in Japan Archives
July 2024
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