Bibliographic Citation:Fukushima, S. (1965). The Building of a National Army. The Developing Economies. 
As I am one to point out often, the dire lack of understanding of BIG HISTORY, a term that encompasses the broad historical context of human civilisation, into which that of budo, and specifically karate, fit this week, I want to explore Fukushima's The Building of a National Army for it explore the militarisation and modernisation process into which modern budo and indeed karate fit. Despite what is often written, karate, as we know it today, is directly connected, shaped and propagated due to the militarization of Japan during the Meiji process. Before that, karate had fallen into disuse and, for many, disregard - a purposeless practice lacking relevance to the modern age. Regardless of what you have read or been told, modern karate (sometimes referenced as 'traditional ') is undoubtedly the product of mindsets, ideals, and body mechanics that trace large swaths of what they are to the Meiji period! Fukushima's article highlights that it was one of the driving forces that drove the "modernisation" of what, ironically, has become known as "traditional" karate.

Summary of Findings and Assertions
In The Building of a National Army, Shingo Fukushima offers an in-depth analysis of Japan's military modernisation, concentrating on the pivotal changes in the armed forces from the Tokugawa period to the Meiji Restoration. Fukushima posits that Japan's shift from a system of feudal retainers to a nationalised military force was central to its efforts to defend against Western colonial powers. He traces how the samurai class, once the primary military force, was progressively replaced by a conscripted national army, reflecting Western models, particularly those of France and Prussia. The article discusses critical military reforms, including disbanding feudal armies and forming a centralised military under the Meiji government.

Fukushima asserts that Japan's military modernisation was not solely a defensive measure but also served the broader aims of national sovereignty and prestige. The article underscores the crucial role of leaders from the samurai class in shaping the modern military while also noting that the Meiji government's adoption of Western military technologies, such as firearms and artillery, was driven by Japan's desire to resist Western imperialism. This shift to modernisation, particularly the introduction of conscription, faced resistance from the lower classes and triggered political conflict within the ruling elite.

Situating the Article within the Field
Fukushima's work stands out in military history and political modernisation, offering unique insights into Japan's distinctive process of Westernisation. His analysis aligns with broader academic discourse on the comparative modernisation of military institutions in non-European nations. Scholars like C. E. Black and A. S. Banks, who have categorised Japan's modernisation as self-directed, have argued that Japan's approach diverged from Western tutelage models. Fukushima critiques this classification, suggesting that while Western models influenced Japan's modernisation, it retained distinct characteristics shaped by internal social dynamics and the ideological influence of the samurai class.

The article also illuminates the strategic thinking behind Japan's military modernisation. Focusing on the motivations of Meiji leaders, particularly their goal of preventing Japan from being colonised, Fukushima's work provides a framework for understanding Japan's imperial ambitions and the militaristic path it later pursued. His examination of Japan's military modernisation also contributes to broader discussions about how military institutions preserve and transform national identity.

Assessing its Contribution to the Field
Fukushima's article significantly contributes to studying Japan's military history, offering a detailed analysis of the internal and external forces that shaped its modernisation. One of the article's key strengths is its focus on the intersection between military reform and socio-political change. Fukushima delves into the complexities of Japan's feudal society, exploring the tensions between the samurai class and the government's efforts to nationalise military power. His critique of the Meiji government's reliance on former samurai leaders to lead military reforms provides a nuanced perspective on modernisation as a top-down initiative.

Additionally, Fukushima's use of primary sources, including government documents and military ordinances, enhances the scholarly rigour of his analysis. His work offers crucial context for understanding the broader geopolitical landscape of 19th-century East Asia, particularly Japan's relationship with Western powers and its strategic responses to foreign military pressure【16†source】.

Future Considerations
Fukushima's analysis opens several avenues for future research on Japan's military modernisation. One area ripe for further exploration is the role of military modernisation in shaping Japan's domestic political structure. While Fukushima touches on the influence of the samurai class in the new national army, further research could examine how this class's integration into the modern state contributed to Japan's later military expansionism.
Moreover, as the article highlights the influence of Western military models on Japan, future studies could investigate the long-term impact of this Westernisation on Japan's military culture, particularly in the context of its imperial ambitions. The question of how Japanese leaders adapted or resisted Western models could provide valuable insights into Japan's military trajectory in the 20th century.

Finally, Fukushima's work raises pertinent questions regarding the relationship between military modernisation and national identity. As Japan's military became more centralised and nationalised, the role of the common soldier—drawn primarily from the peasantry—grew increasingly important. Future research could examine how this shift affected Japan's class structure and the relationship between military and civilian governance.
In conclusion, Fukushima's article is essential to understanding Japan's military transformation during a crucial historical period. It offers a detailed, well-researched analysis of the Meiji government's efforts to modernise the military while safeguarding Japan's sovereignty. Focusing on this process's social, political, and military dimensions, Fukushima provides a comprehensive view of how national identity and geopolitical forces can shape and shape military modernisation.

Japanese Language Summary
福島晋吾の『国軍の建設』についての要約
福島晋吾の論文「国軍の建設」は、江戸時代から明治維新にかけての日本の軍事近代化についての詳細な分析を提供しています。福島は、日本が封建的な軍事制度から国民軍へと移行したことが、西洋の植民地主義に対抗するために不可欠であったと主張しています。特に、武士階級がかつての主な軍事力から、西洋の軍事モデル（フランスやプロイセンの例）に基づいた徴兵制の国民軍へと徐々に取って代わられていく過程が描かれています。

福島は、日本の軍事近代化が単なる防御的な動きに留まらず、国家主権や国威の向上を目指したものであるとしています。また、明治政府が火器や大砲などの西洋の軍事技術を採用したことが、西洋帝国主義に対抗するための現実的な選択であったことも指摘されています。この変革は、特に徴兵制の導入により、下層階級からの抵抗や政治的対立を引き起こしました。

論文の位置付け
福島の研究は、日本の独特な西洋化のプロセスに関する洞察を提供し、軍事史や政治的近代化の分野において重要な位置を占めています。彼の分析は、非西欧諸国における軍事制度の比較近代化に関する広範な学術的議論と一致しており、C.E.ブラックやA.S.バンクスのような学者が分類した日本の「自律的近代化」という見解を批判的に再検討しています。

さらに、福島の論文は、軍事改革と国家建設の関係を明らかにしており、日本の指導者たちが西洋列強による植民地化を防ぐことを目指していたことを強調しています。彼の研究は、軍事制度がどのようにして国民のアイデンティティを保持し、変容させたかを理解するための重要な枠組みを提供しています。

論文の貢献と将来の研究の可能性
福島の論文は、日本の軍事史研究において重要な貢献をしています。特に、軍事改革が政治的・社会的変化とどのように交差したかに焦点を当てた点が評価されています。武士階級と政府の緊張関係に対する彼の分析は、トップダウン的な近代化の物語に新たな視点を提供しています。

福島の分析は、今後の研究においても多くの方向性を示唆しています。例えば、軍事近代化が日本の国内政治構造にどのような影響を与えたかや、西洋の軍事モデルが日本の軍事文化にどのような影響を与えたかなどが、さらに探求されるべきテーマとして挙げられます。

OpenAI. (2024). ChatGPT (4o) [Large language model]. https://chatgpt.com/c/15243f03-db43-4f1b-91ef-026a88d757d8​

Unpacking the Quote: Original Chinese Meaning and Cultural Context
Recently, I revisited Sun Tzu’s "The Art of War". While it is a text that no longer fits seamlessly with the modern world, it nonetheless offers ideas that, when translated into a contemporary context, can, in my opinion, provide footholds for deeper personal and social growth."

The passage from Sun Tzu's The Art of War—"圍地則謀, 死地則戰" (Wéidì zé móu, Sǐdì zé zhàn)—encapsulates profound strategic wisdom deeply rooted in ancient Chinese military and philosophical thought. To fully grasp its significance, we must delve into the original Chinese terminology, the broader cultural context from which Sun Tzu's ideas emerged, and later, how these ideas influenced Japanese culture, particularly in the context of Budo.
Original Chinese Text Analysis
1. 圍地則謀 (Wéidì zé móu): "On surrounded ground, plan for your escape."

• 圍地 (Wéidì): This term translates to "encircled ground." It describes a situation where a military force is surrounded by the enemy, facing imminent threat and limited options for manoeuvre. The emphasis here is on the tactical disadvantage of such a position, highlighting the need for cunning and strategy to extricate oneself from peril.
• 則謀 (Zé móu): The phrase 則謀 (zé móu) conveys the idea of careful planning or devising a strategy. The character 謀 (móu) goes beyond simple planning; it implies ingenuity and craftiness, often associated with the need to outwit an adversary. This reflects the high value placed on intelligence and strategy in Chinese military thinking.

2. 死地則戰 (Sǐdì zé zhàn): "On desperate ground, fight."

• 死地 (Sǐdì): The term 死地 (sǐdì) translates to "deadly ground" or "desperate ground." It refers to situations where a force is cornered with no possibility of retreat—where the only options are victory or death. The notion of 死地 conveys such a scenario's extreme urgency and finality.
• 則戰 (Zé zhàn): The command 則戰 (zé zhàn) means "then fight." Here, 戰 (zhàn) emphasises the necessity of total commitment to combat when all other options have been exhausted. This instruction embodies fighting with absolute determination when survival is at stake.

Cultural Context in Ancient China
The Art of War was composed during the late Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history, around the 5th century BCE. This era was characterised by constant warfare among rival states, where survival and dominance depended on military might and strategic ingenuity. The philosophy underlying Sun Tzu's teachings is deeply intertwined with both Daoist and Legalist thought.

• Daoism (道家, Daojia): Daoism emphasises harmony with the natural order and the importance of adaptability. Sun Tzu's advice to plan or fight based on the situation echoes Daoist principles of flexibility and the fluidity of responses. The concept of Wu Wei (無為), or effortless action, aligns with the idea of choosing the path of least resistance when surrounded (planning to escape) and exerting full force only when necessary (fighting on the desperate ground).
• Legalism (法家, Fajia): Legalist philosophy, which was also prominent during this period, stresses the importance of law, order, and strategy and manipulation to maintain power and control. Sun Tzu's focus on careful planning and strategic action reflects Legalist ideas, where the ruler or general must use any means necessary to secure victory, often employing deception and psychological tactics. Indeed, this role of legalism is frequently missed when exploring Sun Tsu's treaties, usually overshadowed by misplaced discussions of Confucianism.

Influence on Japanese Culture and Budo
Once transmitted to Japan, Sun Tzu's ideas became an integral part of the samurai ethos and the development of Japanese martial arts, particularly under the influence of Zen Buddhism and Bushido, the warrior's way. This integration created a shared heritage that 
connects us to strategic thinking and adaptability, which are deeply ingrained in Japanese culture.

Strategic Thinking and Adaptability in Japanese Culture.
Introduction to Japan: Sun Tzu's The Art of War was introduced to Japan during the Heian period (794-1185) and became particularly influential during the Sengoku period (1467-1615), a time of civil war and social upheaval. Japanese military leaders and samurai studied Sun Tzu's principles to gain strategic advantages on the battlefield.
Zen Buddhism: Zen Buddhism emphasises mindfulness, self-discipline, and realising one's true nature, harmonised with Sun Tzu's emphasis on adaptability and strategic thinking. The Zen concept of Mushin (無心), or "no-mind," reflects a state of spontaneous action and readiness, aligning with the idea of being fully prepared to fight when on desperate ground.
Bushido (武士道): The way of the samurai, as encapsulated through various clans' codes, or Bushido, also absorbed Sun Tzu's principles. At a macro level, several Bushido codes emphasise loyalty, courage, and honour, but they also incorporate the importance of strategy and the intelligent application of force. The samurai understood that not all battles should be fought directly; sometimes, planning a retreat or avoiding unnecessary conflict was more honourable and effective, per Sun Tzu's guidance on the surrounding ground.

Application in Budo and the Path to Mastery
Michi (道)—the path or way—is central to Japanese Budo. Budo is not merely about physical techniques but a lifelong journey of self-cultivation, discipline, and moral development. Understanding and applying Sun Tzu's strategic principles can profoundly enhance a budoka's growth in martial arts and life. This concept of Michi in Japanese Budo is a significant aspect of the quote's application in Budo and the path to mastery.
1. Strategic Adaptation in Training and Combat:

• In Budo, practitioners often face challenges, such as plateaus in skill development or opponents of different skill levels. The principle of planning on the surrounding ground encourages a budoka to step back, reassess their training methods, and develop strategies to overcome these challenges. This strategic adaptation equips practitioners with practical knowledge, empowering them to refine their skills and adopt a different approach when needed. Combat Situations: On the mat or in a duel, understanding when to engage directly and when to strategise can be the difference between victory and defeat. A skilled budoka learns to read the opponent, recognise their limitations, and apply the appropriate strategy. As in Sun Tzu's teachings, not every situation requires confrontation; sometimes, evasion or a well-timed counterattack is the wisest course.

2. Unyielding Determination in Critical Moments (often missed or misunderstood in the dojo with an overabundance of physical training and only lip service to the deeper aspects of Budo):

• Personal and Ethical Challenges: Some moments require absolute resolve, like fighting on a desperate ground. For a budoka, this might manifest in persevering through rigorous training, confronting personal fears, or standing firm in one's principles. The understanding that some battles must be fought with total commitment aligns with the Bushido code, where honour and integrity sometimes demand decisive action, regardless of the personal cost.
• Mastery and Beyond: The path of Budo is not just about physical mastery but also spiritual and ethical growth. When a practitioner faces a situation where retreat or avoidance is impossible, Sun Tzu's principle of fighting with all one's might becomes a metaphor for overcoming internal obstacles—such as doubt, fear, or moral dilemmas. By embracing this mindset, a budoka can transcend their limitations and achieve a higher state of personal and martial mastery.

Flourishing as a Budoka and in Life
By deeply internalising Sun Tzu's strategic wisdom, a dedicated budoka can flourish not only in their martial practice but also in their broader life journey:
1. Holistic Growth: The dual approach of planning and decisive action ensures a balanced development in physical skills and mental acuity. Budoka, who embrace this philosophy, will likely become more thoughtful and strategic in their approach to training, competition, and life's challenges.
2. Ethical Integrity and Honour: Sun Tzu's principles, when applied within the framework of Bushido, reinforce the importance of acting with integrity and honour. By understanding when to fight and when to strategise, budoka can navigate the complexities of life while maintaining their ethical standards, thereby embodying the true spirit of the warrior.
3. Resilience and Adaptability: Life, like the battlefield, is unpredictable. A budoka who internalises the wisdom of Sun Tzu will be better equipped to adapt to changing circumstances, respond to challenges with resilience, and seize growth opportunities.
4. Spiritual Enlightenment: Ultimately, the practice of Budo, guided by Sun Tzu's strategic insights, can lead to spiritual enlightenment. By mastering the art of knowing when to plan and fight, budoka can cultivate a deeper understanding of themselves, their path, and their place in the world, achieving harmony within and without.

Conclusion
Sun Tzu's wisdom—"On  surrounded ground, plan for your escape. On desperate ground, fight"—offers timeless guidance that transcends military strategy and extends into personal and professional life. Rooted in ancient Chinese thought and later influencing Japanese culture, this strategic dichotomy encourages a balanced approach of adaptability and decisive action.
In the practice of Japanese Budo, understanding and embodying these principles can lead to profound growth as a martial artist and individual. A budoka who internalises this wisdom will excel in their art through strategic adaptability and unwavering determination and navigate life's complexities with grace, resilience, and ethical integrity. Sun Tzu's ancient wisdom remains a beacon of strategic and personal enlightenment for those walking the Michi.

戦略的智慧と武道：孫子の兵法を武道の道に応用する

孫子の『孫子兵法』における「囲地則謀、死地則戦」（囲地に在りては則ち謀り、死地に在りては則ち戦う）は、古代中国の軍事および哲学的思想に深く根ざした戦略的智慧を表しています。この名言の意義を理解するためには、孫子の思想が生まれた文化的背景と、その後の日本文化、特に武道にどのように影響を与えたかを探る必要があります。

原文の解釈と文化的背景
- 囲地則謀 (Wéidì zé móu): 「囲地に在りては則ち謀り
  - 囲地 (Wéidì):「囲地」とは、軍隊が敵に囲まれている状況を指し、危機に直面しつつも戦略的に脱出する道を探す必要があることを意味します。
  - 則謀 (Zé móu):「謀り」とは、単なる計画を超えて、策を練り、知恵を働かせることを意味し、敵を出し抜くための策略を重視しています。

- 死地則戦 (Sǐdì zé zhàn): 「死地に在りては則ち戦う」
  - 死地 (Sǐdì):「死地」とは、逃げ場がなく、勝利か死かという極限状態を指します。
  - 則戦 (Zé zhàn):「戦う」とは、他に選択肢がない場合、全力で戦う必要があることを強調しています。

中国と日本における文化的影響

『孫子兵法』は、古代中国の戦国時代に生まれ、その後、平安時代（794-1185）に日本に伝わりました。特に、戦国時代（1467-1615）の社会不安の時期に、武将や侍によって戦略的優位性を得るために研究されました。

- 禅仏教と孫子の教えの融合: 禅仏教は、心の平静、自律、そして自らの本質の認識を重視し、孫子の適応力と戦略的思考と調和します。「無心」の概念は、孫子の「死地則戦」の教えと一致し、緊急時には準備を整えて即座に行動することを説いています。

- 武士道と孫子:** 武士道は、忠義、勇気、名誉を重視しつつ、戦略と知恵の適用も含んでいます。すべての戦いが直接的な対決を必要とするわけではなく、時には撤退や不要な戦いを避けることが、名誉ある選択であるとされました。

武道における応用と達成への道

日本の武道では、「道」（Michi）の概念が中心的な役割を果たします。武道は単なる身体的技術ではなく、自己修養、規律、そして道徳的発展を追求する生涯にわたる旅です。孫子の戦略的原則を理解し、応用することは、武道家の成長を促進し、武道や人生の両面で深い成長をもたらします。

- 訓練と戦闘における戦略的適応:  武道では、様々な挑戦に直面することがあります。孫子の「囲地則謀」の原則は、武道家が一歩引いて訓練方法を再評価し、これらの挑戦を克服するための戦略を発展させることを奨励します。

- 重要な瞬間における不屈の決意: 武道家は、厳しい訓練を乗り越えたり、自己の恐怖に立ち向かったりする際に、全力で戦うことが求められることがあります。孫子の「死地則戦」の教えは、武士道の精神と一致し、決断と行動の必要性を強調します。
結論
孫子の「囲地則謀、死地則戦」という智慧は、軍事戦略を超え、個人や職業生活に広がる普遍的な指針を提供します。この戦略的な二元性は、適応力と決断力のバランスを奨励します。武道の実践において、これらの原則を理解し、体現することで、武道家としてだけでなく、個人としても深い成長を遂げることができます。

Bibliographic Citation
Herbert, W. (2020). What did Bodhidharma do in karate-dō? OAG Notizen. [Online] Available at: https://www.academia.edu/39017980/Was_hat_Bodhidharma_im_Karate_d%25C5%258Dj%25C5%258D_verloren [Accessed 29 August 2024].

Summary of Findings and Assertions
Wolfgang Herbert’s article, What did Bodhidharma do in karate-dō? Explores the historical and mythological connections between Bodhidharma and karate. Herbert contends that the widespread belief linking Bodhidharma, the first patriarch of Zen Buddhism, to the establishment of martial arts in the Shaolin Temple—and, by extension, to karate—is primarily grounded in constructed legends rather than historical facts. He identifies several significant phases of transformation that karate has undergone, from its origins in mainland China to its contemporary form as an Olympic sport. Herbert asserts that each transformation has resulted in gains and losses, with the recent trend towards sports karate leading to a narrowed focus that obscures the art’s deeper spiritual and philosophical dimensions. This call for a more nuanced understanding of martial arts can inspire a deeper appreciation and enlightenment among practitioners and scholars.

Herbert meticulously traces the historical roots of Bodhidharma, noting that while he was a pivotal figure in the spread of Zen Buddhism, his direct involvement with martial arts remains speculative at best. The article also examines the broader cultural exchanges between India, China, and Okinawa, which contributed to the development of martial arts. Herbert critiques the oversimplification and commercialisation of karate, especially in the context of its inclusion in the Olympics, arguing that this trend risks eroding the rich, multifaceted nature of the art form.

Situating the Article within the Field
Herbert’s work is critical to martial arts studies, particularly examining the intersection between myth, history, and modern practice. The article aligns with scholarly efforts to demythologise the origins of martial arts, offering a more nuanced understanding of how cultural narratives are constructed and perpetuated. Herbert engages with existing literature on the subject, referencing historical texts and contemporary studies to support his analysis. His work is situated within a broader discourse that questions the authenticity of widely accepted martial arts legends, challenging practitioners and scholars to reconsider the origins and evolution of these traditions.

This article contributes to a growing body of work that seeks to preserve the integrity of martial arts by emphasising their historical and cultural contexts. By examining the myth of Bodhidharma and its impact on the perception of karate, Herbert adds depth to the understanding of how religious, artistic, and socio-political forces have shaped martial arts. His focus on karate's historical and philosophical dimensions serves as a counterpoint to the prevailing emphasis on its physical and competitive aspects, particularly in the context of its Olympic inclusion.

Assessing its Contribution to the Field
Herbert’s article is a valuable resource for martial arts practitioners and scholars. It offers a well-researched critique of the myths surrounding Bodhidharma and their influence on the development of karate. The article’s interdisciplinary approach, drawing on religious studies, cultural history, and martial arts scholarship, provides a comprehensive analysis that challenges the reader to think critically about the narratives that shape our understanding of martial arts. It urges a return to the roots of these practices to preserve their original intent and meaning, stimulating intellectual engagement and debate.

One of Herbert’s critical contributions is its emphasis on balancing the various dimensions of karate—physical, mental, and spiritual. By highlighting the dangers of focusing too narrowly on karate certification, Herbert calls for a more holistic approach that honours the art’s rich history and philosophical underpinnings. His analysis is particularly relevant in the current context, where the globalisation and commercialisation of martial arts threaten to dilute their traditional values.

Future Considerations
Looking ahead, Herbert’s article suggests several trajectories for future research and practice in martial arts. Scholars could further investigate the historical connections between different martial arts traditions, exploring how cultural exchanges have shaped the evolution of these practices. There is also a need for more critical studies that examine the impact of globalisation and commercialisation on martial arts, particularly concerning their spiritual and philosophical dimensions.

In terms of practice, Herbert’s work encourages martial artists to engage more deeply with their disciplines' historical and cultural roots. This could involve integrating traditional practices such as meditation and philosophical study into modern training regimes, thereby preserving the holistic nature of martial arts. Additionally, as karate evolves, it will be essential to balance its competitive aspects with its more profound, reflective elements, ensuring that the art remains true to its origins even as it adapts to contemporary demands.

In summary, Herbert’s article significantly contributes to the study of martial arts, offering academically rigorous and practically relevant insights. His work challenges prevailing narratives, inviting deeper reflection and setting the stage for future research and practice that honours the full scope of what martial arts can offer. This emphasis on deeper reflection can make the audience feel more reflective and contemplative about their understanding and practice of martial arts.
Japanese:
​ヘルベルト・ウルフガングの論文「ボーディダルマは空手道に何をもたらしたか？」は、ボーディダルマと空手との歴史的および神話的な関連性を探求しています。ヘルベルトは、禅仏教の初代祖であるボーディダルマが少林寺で武術を確立し、それが空手に発展したという広く信じられている説が、歴史的事実よりも作られた伝説に基づいていると主張しています。また、空手が中国本土から現代のオリンピック競技に至るまでに経た変遷を明らかにし、その過程で得られたものと失われたものについても論じています。特に、スポーツとしての空手が強調されることで、武術の深い精神的・哲学的側面が見過ごされていると警鐘を鳴らしています。

ヘルベルトは、ボーディダルマが禅仏教の普及において重要な役割を果たしたものの、武術との直接的な関与は非常に推測的なものであるとしています。さらに、インド、中国、沖縄の文化的交流が武術の発展に寄与したことを探りながら、空手がオリンピックに含まれる過程での単純化や商業化を批判しています。

この論文は、武術の神話と歴史、そして現代の実践との交差点を検討する上で重要であり、武術の起源と進化に関する神話を見直す学術的な取り組みに貢献しています。特に、武術が持つ歴史的・文化的文脈を強調し、ボーディダルマの神話が空手の認識に与えた影響を通じて、宗教的、芸術的、社会政治的な力が武術にどのように影響を与えたかについての理解を深めています。

ヘルベルトの研究は、武術の学問的理解を促進し、特に空手の認定に過度に集中することの危険性を指摘しつつ、空手の身体的、精神的、そして哲学的側面のバランスを取ることを提唱しています。この論文は、武術の伝統的価値がグローバル化と商業化によって希薄化する危機に直面している現状において、非常に重要な意義を持っています。

​OpenAI. (2024). ChatGPT (4o) [Large language model]. https://chatgpt.com/c/3d332991-a8c8-4ba0-bfff-6c83e06b8950

As I start up my 34th year of teaching I want to share some thoughts and insights on the role of meetings in effective schools. My experience is primarily drawing upon intyerntional education, although I would hazzard to suggest that such items are endemic to all school forms and formats.

Meetings are a fundamental aspect of school organisational life. However, our research findings indicate that excessive reliance on them can detrimentally impact teacher productivity, well-being, and overall school performance. This exploration sheds light on how excessive meetings can inadvertently undermine the goals they intend to support, providing crucial insights for school administrators, educational policymakers, and teachers.
1. Impact on Teacher Productivity and Well-being.

• Time Management: Teachers often have myriad responsibilities, including lesson planning, marking, and providing individualised student support. Excessive meetings can severely reduce the time available for these critical tasks. Studies demonstrate that teachers who spend a significant portion of their day in meetings report lower productivity levels, negatively impacting both instructional quality and student outcomes (Knight, 2011).
• Teacher Burnout: Teachers are already susceptible to burnout due to the demanding nature of the profession. Adding unnecessary meetings to their workload can exacerbate stress and reduce job satisfaction. Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2017) noted that non-instructional responsibilities, such as meetings, contribute significantly to emotional exhaustion and burnout among teachers.

2. Diminishing Returns on Collaboration.

• Ineffective Communication: While meetings enhance communication and collaboration, poorly structured or frequent meetings can lead to information overload and confusion. For instance, meetings without a clear agenda or those that run longer than necessary can be considered ineffective. Steven Rogelberg’s work on workplace meetings illustrates that such ineffective meetings result in reduced morale and lower levels of engagement, which diminishes their overall effectiveness (Rogelberg, 2019).
• Groupthink and Redundancy: Constant meetings can also foster groupthink, a psychological phenomenon where the desire for harmony or conformity in a group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome. This stifles innovation and can lead to decisions that are not in the school's best interest. Janis (1982) first identified this phenomenon, which is particularly harmful in educational settings where creativity and adaptive problem-solving are essential. Additionally, repetitive meetings can become redundant, leading to a lack of action and demoralising staff (Jackson, 2018).

3. Impact on School Leadership.

• Inefficient Decision-Making: An over-reliance on meetings can impede decision-making in schools. Leadership studies by Spillane (2006) highlight that schools with distributed leadership models, where decision-making power is delegated more broadly, function more efficiently than those dependent on frequent centralised meetings.
• Micromanagement Concerns: Excessive meetings can create a culture of micromanagement, where teachers feel they have little autonomy over their practice. Sinek (2009) argues that autonomy and trust are crucial for maintaining a motivated workforce; micromanagement through constant meetings erodes this trust.

4. Alternative Strategies for Schools.

• Empowering Teachers: Schools that grant teachers greater autonomy by reducing unnecessary meetings tend to achieve better teacher performance and student learning outcomes. Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) have shown that fostering teacher agency—allowing teachers to take control of their professional practice—improves job satisfaction and student achievement.
• Efficient Use of Technology: Many schools have turned to technology to reduce the number of in-person meetings. For instance, shared documents can be used for collaborative planning, project management software can help track progress and deadlines, and messaging platforms can facilitate quick communication without constant face-to-face meetings (West, 2020). This allows teachers to devote more time to instructional activities, enhancing overall school effectiveness.

Conclusion
While an overreliance on meetings can negatively affect schools, including decreased productivity, teacher burnout, ineffective communication, and slowed decision-making, there is hope. By reducing unnecessary meetings, utilising alternative strategies, such as technology, and empowering teachers with autonomy, schools can significantly improve the working environment for staff and the educational outcomes for students.


 References:

• Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. (2012). Professional Capital: Transforming Teaching in Every School. Teachers College Press.
• Janis, I. L. (1982). Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes. Houghton Mifflin.
• Knight, J. (2011). Unmistakable Impact: A Partnership Approach for Dramatically Improving Instruction. Corwin Press.
• Rogelberg, S. G. (2019). The Surprising Science of Meetings: How You Can Lead Your Team to Peak Performance. Oxford University Press.
• Sinek, S. (2009). Start With Why: How Great Leaders Inspire Everyone to Take Action. Portfolio.
• Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2017). Teacher Stress and Burnout: The Role of Job Demands, Resources, and Coping Strategies. Teaching and Teacher Education.
• Spillane, J. P. (2006). Distributed Leadership. Jossey-Bass.
• West, M. R. (2020). Education and the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from K-12 Schooling and the Economy. Brookings Institution.

Japanese Summary:
私が教育現場での34年目を迎えるにあたり、学校における会議の役割についての考えを共有したいと思います。私の経験は主に国際教育に基づいていますが、こうした問題はすべての学校形態に共通していると言えるでしょう。

会議は学校組織の基本的な側面ですが、私たちの研究によると、会議に過度に依存することは、教師の生産性、福祉、そして学校全体のパフォーマンスに悪影響を与える可能性があります。本稿では、会議が意図している目標をどのようにして不意に損なってしまうかを探り、学校管理者、教育政策立案者、教師に重要な洞察を提供します。

1. **教師の生産性と福祉への影響**
   - **時間管理**：教師は授業準備、採点、生徒個別のサポートなど、多くの責任を抱えています。会議が過剰になると、これらの重要なタスクに割く時間が大幅に減少します。研究によると、会議に多くの時間を費やす教師は、生産性が低下し、授業の質や生徒の成果に悪影響を与えることが示されています（Knight, 2011）。
   - **教師のバーンアウト**：教師は職業の性質上、すでにバーンアウトのリスクが高いです。不要な会議がその負担を増大させ、ストレスや仕事への満足度を低下させます。Skaalvik and Skaalvik（2017）は、会議のような非教育的な責任が感情的な疲労やバーンアウトに大きく寄与していることを指摘しています。

2. **協働の効果の減少**
   - **非効率的なコミュニケーション**：会議はコミュニケーションと協働を促進しますが、構造が不十分だったり頻繁すぎる会議は、情報の過剰摂取や混乱を引き起こす可能性があります。例えば、明確なアジェンダのない会議や長引く会議は、無効と見なされます。Steven Rogelbergの研究によると、こうした無効な会議は士気を低下させ、エンゲージメントを下げ、結果的に効果を減少させるとされています（Rogelberg, 2019）。
   - **グループシンクと冗長性**：会議の頻繁さがグループシンク（集団思考）を助長し、創造性を抑制し、非合理的な意思決定を引き起こすことがあります。これは教育現場において特に有害で、創造的かつ適応的な問題解決が求められる場面で重大な障害となります（Janis, 1982）。また、繰り返しの会議は冗長になり、行動の欠如やスタッフの士気を低下させる可能性があります（Jackson, 2018）。

3. **学校リーダーシップへの影響**
   - **非効率的な意思決定**：会議に過度に依存すると、学校内での意思決定が妨げられることがあります。Spillane（2006）のリーダーシップ研究によると、意思決定権を分散させた学校は、頻繁な中央集権的な会議に依存している学校よりも効率的に機能します。
   - **マイクロマネジメントの懸念**：頻繁な会議は、教師が自分の実践に対する自律性を持たないという感覚を生じさせる可能性があります。Sinek（2009）は、自律性と信頼がモチベーションを維持するために重要であり、頻繁な会議によるマイクロマネジメントはこの信頼を損なうと指摘しています。

4. **学校の代替戦略**
   - **教師のエンパワーメント**：不要な会議を減らし、教師により大きな自律性を与える学校は、教師のパフォーマンスや生徒の学習成果を向上させる傾向があります。Hargreaves and Fullan（2012）は、教師が自分の専門的実践をコントロールすることができる環境を作ることで、仕事の満足度と生徒の成果が向上することを示しています。
   - **テクノロジーの効率的な活用**：多くの学校では、対面の会議の回数を減らすためにテクノロジーを利用しています。例えば、共同作業には共有ドキュメントを使用し、プロジェクト管理ソフトウェアで進捗状況や期限を追跡し、メッセージングプラットフォームで迅速なコミュニケーションを図ることができます（West, 2020）。これにより、教師はより多くの時間を教育活動に充てることができ、学校全体の効果が向上します。

**結論**
会議に過度に依存することは、学校において生産性の低下、教師のバーンアウト、非効率なコミュニケーション、意思決定の遅延など、さまざまな悪影響を及ぼす可能性があります。しかし、不要な会議を減らし、テクノロジーを活用し、教師に自律性を与えることで、学校の労働環境や教育成果は大幅に改善される可能性があります。​